Mechatronics I

MECHATRONICS I:
INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS
• MT 423- Mechatronics (A)
• I- Overview of Mechatronics

• II-Modeling and Simulation of Mechatronics System using

• 1-Object oriented simulation
• 2-Examples of different mechatronics simulation software packages such as
DYNAST.
• III- Mechatronics Components
• 1-Sensor in mechatronics system
• 2-Actuator in mechatronics system
• 3- Interfacing mechatronics system with microproessor
• 4- The role of control in mechatronics system
• IV- Case Studies
• 1- Hard disk drive
• 2- Two – axis manipulator
• 3- Mobile robot
4- Material handling using Scara
5-
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Lecture Outline
What is a sensor?

Some Terminology

Some sensors
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Sensors
A sensor is a device which converts physical
phenomena into an electrical signal .

Sensors represent part of the interface

between the physical world and the world of
electrical devices, such as computers.
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Transducers
A transducer is any device that converts energy in
one form to energy in another form.

Often the active element of a sensor is referred to as a

transducer.

The majority converts some non-electrical physical

quantity (such as displacement, pressure,
temperature, sound, light, etc) to an electrical signal
and named sensors. Those that convert electrical
energy to mechanical energy (displacement) are
called actuators. .
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Role of Sensors in Measuring Systems

Sensor output is fed to a display or readout device

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Role of Sensors in Mechatronics Systems

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Classification of Sensors
 Measured quantity

 Working principle

 Passive and active sensors

 Nature of the output signal i.e. Digital or analog

 Input/output dynamic relationships (zero, first, second

order, etc. )
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Active vs. Passive Sensors

 The active sensor is the one which directly generates an
electrical signal in response to an external stimulus
without the need for an external power supply. The Output
signal power comes from the stimulus, examples
thermocouple, piezoelectric sensors, tachogenerator …..
etc.

 Passive sensors require an external power supply or an

excitation signal for their operation and their output is a
measure of variation in some electrical parameter, such as
resistance, capacitance, inductance, … etc. The output
signal power comes from the power supply.
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Analog vs. Digital Sensors

 Analog sensors provide a signal that is continuous in both
its magnitude and temporal or spatial content.

 Most of the physical measurands are analog in nature, e.g.,

pressure, temperature, displacement, light intensity,
torque, strain, … etc.

 The output of digital sensors takes the form of discrete

steps or states.

 Digital signals are more repeatable, reliable and easier to

transmit, e.g., shaft encoder, contact switch.
Mechatronics I

Selecting Sensors
 Physical quantity to be measured or sensed.

 Operating range: maintain range requirements and good

resolution.

 Sensitivity: chosen to allow sufficient output .

 Environmental compatibility: temperature range, corrosive

fluids, pressures, shocks, interaction, size and mounting
restriction.

 Accuracy, repeatability and calibration errors.

 Cost and availability.

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Sensor Terminology
 Transfer Function
 Sensitivity
 Span or Dynamic Range
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Hysteresis
 Response Time
 Resolution
 Offset
 Noise
 Bandwidth
 Non-linearity .
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Transfer Function
 The transfer function is the
functional relationship between
physical input quantity and
electrical output signal.

 For expensive sensors which

are individually calibrated, this
might take the form of the
certified calibration curve.

 There are many types of

transfer functions: zero order,
first order and second order.
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Transfer Function
 Zero-order sensors
+ It has no time delays
+ Infinite bandwidth
+ The sensor follows only the change in the amplitude of the
input signal
+ Zero-order systems do not include energy-storing elements
Example: a potentiometer used to measure linear and/or rotary
displacements

 First-order sensors

- Have one element that stores energy and one that dissipates it.
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Sensitivity
 Sensitivity is generally the ratio
between a small change in electrical
signal to a small change in physical
signal.

 May be expressed as the derivative

(slope of the output characteristic
curve) of the transfer function with
respect to physical signal.

 A Thermometer would have "high

sensitivity" if a small temperature
change resulted in a large voltage
change.
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Span or Dynamic Range

 The range of input physical signals which may be
converted to electrical signals by the sensor.

 Signals outside of this range are expected to cause

unacceptably large inaccuracy.

 This span or dynamic range is usually specified by

the sensor supplier as the range over which other
performance characteristics described in the data
sheets are expected to apply.
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Accuracy
 Generally defined as the largest expected error
between actual and ideal output signals. i.e. the
maximum difference that will exist between the
actual value and the indicated value at the output of
the sensor.

 Accuracy can be expressed either as a percentage

of full scale [5% of FSO (Full Scale Output) ] or in
absolute terms.
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Precision
 The concept of precision refers to the degree of
reproducibility of a measurement.

 If exactly the same value were measured a number

of times, an ideal sensor would output exactly the
same value every time.
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Hysteresis

 A sensor should be capable of

following the changes of the input
parameter regardless of which
direction the change is made,
hysteresis is the measure of this
property .

 It matters from which direction

the change is made.
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Response Time

 Time required for a sensor

output to change from its
previous state to a final
settled value within a
tolerance band of the
correct new value.
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Nonlinearity
 The maximum deviation from
a linear transfer function over
the specified dynamic range.

 The most common way to

measure it is to compare the
actual transfer function with
the `best straight line', which
lies midway between the two
parallel lines which
encompasses the entire
transfer function over the
specified dynamic range of
the device.
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Resolution
 the smallest detectable incremental change
(fluctuation) of input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal.

 Resolution can be expressed either as a

proportion of the reading (or the full-scale reading)
or in absolute terms.
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Position Measurement
 Proximity sensors and switches.

 Potentiometers.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LDVT)

 Digital Optical Encoder

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Potentiometer
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Potentiometer
 Advantages:
 Deviation from linearity is low 0.1 to 1.0% .
 Its electric efficiency is very high and it provides a
sufficient output to permit control operations without further
amplification.
 The device may be ac or dc excited.

 Disadvantages:
 Because of the mechanical friction of the slider against the
resistance element, its life is limited and noise may develop as
the element wear out.
 Non-linearities as a result of loading effects
 Low Resolution due to limited number of turns per unit distance
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Potentiometer
EXAMPLE 1:
A pot is supplied with 10 V and is set at 82° The
range of this single-turn pot is 350°. Calculate the
output voltage.
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Potentiometer
EXAMPLE 2:
The robot arm 120° stop-to-
stop and uses a single turn
(350°) pot as the position
sensor. The controller is an
8-bit digital system and
needs to know the actual
position of the arm to within
0.5°. Determine if the setup
will do the job.
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Potentiometer
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Potentiometer
Complete….
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Potentiometer
Completed!
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Linear Variable Differential Transformer

 Definition – What is a LVDT?
• Electromechanical transducer
– Coupled to any type of object/structure
– Converts the rectilinear motion of an object into a
corresponding electrical signal
– Measures Displacement!!!!!!!!
• Precision of LVDT
– Movements as small as a few millionths of an inch
– Usually measurements are taken on the order of ±12
inches
– Some LVDT’s have capabilities to measure up to ±20
inches
 Definition – Why use a LVDT?
• Friction – Free Operation
– NO mechanical contact between core and coil (usually)
• Infinite Mechanical Life
• Infinite Resolution
– Electromagnetic coupling
• Limited only by electrical noise
• Low risk of damage
– Most LVDT’s have open bore holes
• Null Point Repeatability
– Zero displacement can be measured
• Single Axis Sensitivity
– Effects of other axes are not felt on the axis of interest
• Environmentally Robust
– Stable/Strong sensors – good for structural engineering tests!!!
 Type of LVDT’s
• DC vs. AC Operated
– DC Operated
• Ease of installation
• Simpler data conditioning
• Operate from dry cell batteries (remote locations)
• Lower System Cost
– AC Operated
• Smaller than DC
• More accurate than DC
• Operate well at high temperatures
 Type of LVDT’s (cont.)
• Armature Types
– Unguided Armature
• Fits loosely in bore hole
• LVDT body and armature are separately mounted – must ensure alignment
• Frictionless movement
• Suitability
– Short-range high speed applications
– High number of cycles
– Captive (Guided) Armature
• Restrained and guided by a low-friction bearing assembly
• Suitability
– Longer working range
– Alignment is a potential problem
– Spring Extended Armature
• Restrained and guided by a low-friction bearing assembly (again!)
• Internal spring pushes armature to max. extension
– Maintains reliable contact with body to be measured
• Suitability
– Static – slow moving application (joint-opening in pavement slabs)
 Type of LVDT’s (cont.)

Generic Schematic:

Examples:

Source: http://www.daytronic.com/Products/trans/lvdt/default.htm#UN
 LVDT Components
Ferrous core Epoxy encapsulation

Primary coil
Secondary coil

Bore shaft

Magnetic shielding

Stainless steel end caps

Secondary coil

High density glass filled coil Signal conditioning

forms circuitry
Cross section of a DC-
LVDT

Source: http://www.macrosensors.com/lvdt_macro_sensors/lvdt_tutorial/lvdt_primer.p
 Underlying Principle

• Electromagnetic Induction:


L
i
Where: L= inductance
 = magnetic flux
i = electric current
 Underlying Principle

• Electromagnetic Induction:
– Primary Coil (RED) is connected to power source
– Secondary Coils (BLUE) are connected in parallel but with opposing polarity
– Primary coil’s magnetic field (BLACK) induces a current in the secondary
coils
– Ferro-Metallic core (BROWN) manipulates primary’s magnetic field
 Underlying Principle
– In the null position, the magnetic field generates currents of equal
magnitude in both secondary coils.
– When the core is moved, there will be more magnetic flux in one coil than
the other resulting in different currents and therefore different voltages
– This variation in voltages is linearly proportional to displacement

Null position

Displaced

Source: http://www.macrosensors.com/lvdt_macro_sensors/lvdt_tutorial/lvdt_primer.p
Mechatronics I

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Output of the LVDT is an AC voltage with a

magnitude and phase angle. The magnitude
represents the distance that the core is off center,
and the phase angle represents the direction of
the core (left or right.)
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LVDT Interface Circuit

The output of the LVDT interface circuit is a DC voltage whose

magnitude and polarity are proportional to the linear distance that
the core is offset from the center.
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Linear Variable Differential Transformer

 Advantages:
 Accuracy over the linear range.
 No sliding contacts.
 Analog output with no need for amplification.
 Less sensitive to wide ranges in temperature than
other position transducers (pots, encoders).

 Disadvantages:
 Limited range of motion.
 Limited frequency response.
 AC input voltage supply.
 AC output needs interface circuit to convert it to dc.
Mechatronics I

Digital Optical Encoder

 An optical rotary encoder

produces angular
position data directly in
digital form, eliminating
any need for the ADC
converter.

 There are two types of

optical rotary encoders:
the absolute encoder and
the incremental encoder.
Mechatronics I

Absolute Optical Encoders

 Absolute optical encoders use a
glass disk marked off with a
pattern of concentric tracks.
 A separate light beam is sent
through each track to individual
photo sensors.
 Each photo sensor contributes 1
bit to the output digital word.
 The encoder outputs a 4-bit word
with the LSB coming from the
outer track.
 Better use the Grey code on the
disk instead of the straight binary
code.
Mechatronics I

Absolute Optical Encoders

 The disk is divided into 16 sectors, so
the resolution in this case is 360/16 =
22.5.
 For better resolution, more tracks
would be required, e.g., 8 tracks
(providing 256 states) yield 360/256
=1.4/state
 An advantage: output is in
straightforward digital form and, like a
pot, always gives the absolute
position.
 A disadvantage: relatively expensive
because it requires many photocells
be mounted and aligned very
precisely.
Mechatronics I

Incremental Optical Encoders

 Has only one track of
equally spaced slots.

 Position is determined
by counting the number
of slots that pass by a
photo sensor, where
each slot represents a
known angle.
Mechatronics I

Incremental Optical Encoders

 This system requires an initial
reference point, which may
come from a second sensor on
an inner track or simply from a
mechanical stop or limit switch.

 To keep track of the position,

the controller must know which
direction the disk is turning as
well as the number of slots
passed.
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Incremental Optical Encoders

 To sense direction, two

channels are needed.
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Incremental Optical Encoders

 To indicate rotation direction as well, two pulse

sequences are generated (Track A and Track B).
 Track B pulses will lead track A pulses for a clockwise
rotation, and vice versa.
 A third track may be added that outputs one pulse per
revolution.

 Measures relative rotation so losing count is a serious

problem.

 False counts may be generated by electricity transients

or outside disturbances.
Mechatronics I

Interfacing Incremental Encoders

 The two tracks are connected to an input port (of a
computer of a microcontroller). Then a software program
may count the pulses coming from the tracks. The count is
incremented if Track A is leading, and is decremented if
Track B is leading. The program (and thus the computer)
may have to be busy counting almost all the time.

 Alternatively, the pulses may counted by hardware via a

counter IC (e.g., 74393). The ready count of the counter IC
can be read by the MCU via an input port.
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Interfacing Incremental Encoders

up-down counter, e.g.,
TTL 74193 4-bit counter.
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Interfacing Incremental Encoders - Example

The angular position of a shaft must be known to a

resolution of 0.5°. A system that uses a 720-slot encoder
is proposed. The controller uses a 8051 microcontroller
which has 8 bit ports. Will this design meet the
specifications?
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Interfacing Incremental Encoders - Solution

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Proximity Sensors

 A proximity sensor simply tells the controller

whether a moving part is at a certain place.
 A limit switch is an example of a proximity sensor.
 For example, in an automatic garage-door opener,
limit switches signal if the door is all the way open
or all the way closed.
 Switches have at least two drawbacks:
• Being a mechanical device, they eventually wear out,
• They require a certain amount of physical force to actuate.
 Two other types of proximity sensors: optics or
hall-effect based (both need support electronics)
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Optical Proximity Sensors

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Photodetectors

 Photo resistors:
 its resistance decreases when light level
increases.
 inexpensive and quite sensitive (change factor 
100)

 Photodiodes:
 light increases the reverse-leakage current.
Mechatronics I

Photodetectors (cont’d)

 Photo transistors:
 light creates a base current
 the more light, the more the
transistor turns on.

 Photovoltaic cells (e.g., solar

cells):
 creates electrical power
from light
 the more light, the higher
the voltage.
Mechatronics I

Hall-effect Proximity sensors

 Hall-effect sensor outputs a voltage when the

magnetic field in which it finds itself increases.
This is done either by moving a magnet or by
changing the magnetic field path.
Mechatronics I

Angular Velocity Sensors

 Velocity from Position Sensors
Velocity is the rate of change of position. Expressed
mathematically,

 Velocity can be extracted from two sequential position

data samples (if the time between them is known).

 If the system already has a position sensor, such as a

potentiometer, using this approach eliminates the need for
an additional (velocity) sensor.

 May amplify errors in position measurement.

Mechatronics I

Direct Current Tachometers

 A direct current tachometer is essentially a DC

generator that produces a DC output voltage
proportional to shaft velocity.
 The output polarity is determined by the
direction of rotation.
 Provide a direct conversion between velocity and
voltage.
 But requires the use of brushes, which eventually
wear out.
 Can be used to measure position by integrating
the measured velocity.
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The CK20 DC tachometer

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The CK20 DC tachometer

 The transfer function for the tachometer has units of
volts/1000 rpm.
 It has a speed range of 0-6000 rpm.
 Maximum voltage would be 18 V at 6000 rpm.

 The “linearity” of the motor is given as 0.2%, which

means that the actual velocity may be as much as
0.2%, different from what it should be.

 For example, if the output is 9 V, the velocity should

be 3000 rpm; however, because 0.2% 3000 = 6
rpm, the actual velocity could be anywhere from 2994
to 3006 rpm.
Mechatronics I

DC Tachometer - Example

A motor with a piggyback tachometer has a built-

in gear box with a ratio of 100 : 1 (the output
shaft rotates 100 times slower than the motor).
The tachometer is a CK20-A with an output of 3
V/Krpm. This unit is driving a machine tool with a
maximum rotational velocity of 60°/s.

a. What is the expected output of the tachometer?

b. Find the resolution of this system if the
tachometer data were converted to digital with an
8-bit ADC.
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DC Tachometer - Example
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Strain Gauges

 Strain gauge can be used to measure a wide

range of forces, from 10 lb to many tons.
 The entire strain gauge is securely bonded to
some structural object and will detect any
deformation that may take place. The gauge is
oriented so the wires lie in the same direction as
the expected deformation.
 If the object is put under tension, the gauge will
stretch and elongate the wires, thus increasing
resistance of the strain-gauge wires.
 The resistance change in a strain gauge is small
(less than an ohm) so requires a bridge circuit.
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Strain Gauges
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Strain Gauges
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Strain Gauges
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Strain Gauges
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Young’s Modulus (E)

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Load Cells

 Strain-gauge force
transducers (called load cells)
are available as self-
contained units that can be
mounted anywhere in the
system.

 A load cell may contain two

strain gauges (active and
compensating) and a bridge.
Mechatronics I

Temperature Sensors

 Thermocouples

 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

 Thermistors

 Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

Mechatronics I

Thermocouples

 The thermocouple is based on the

Seebeck effect, a phenomenon whereby a
voltage that is proportional to
temperature can be produced from a
circuit consisting of two dissimilar metal
wires.
Mechatronics I

Thermocouples
the highest
sensitivity but the
lowest temperature
Thermocouple range
outputs
for different
wire types
(referenced at
32°F).
Mechatronics I

Thermocouples

 Thermocouples are simple and rugged

but require extra electronics to deal with
the inherent low-sensitivity and cold-
junction problems. However, because
they are linear (over a limited range),
reliable, and stable, they enjoy wide use
in measuring high temperatures in
furnaces and ovens.
Mechatronics I

Resistance Temperature Detectors

 The resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a
temperature sensor based on the fact that metals
increase in resistance as temperature rises.

 RTDs have the advantage of being very accurate and

stable (characteristics do not change over time).

 The disadvantages are low sensitivity (small change in

resistance per degree), relatively slow response time to
temperature changes, and high cost.

 A 100-Ωplatinum RTD has a resistance of 100 Ωat 0°C,

and it has a positive temperature coefficient of 0.39
Ω/°C.
Mechatronics I

Thermistors

 A thermistor is a two-terminal device that changes

resistance with temperature.
 Thermistors are made of oxide-based semiconductor
materials and come in a variety of sizes and shapes.
 Thermistors are nonlinear; therefore, they are not
usually used to get an accurate temperature reading
but to indicate temperature changes, for example,
overheating.
 Most thermistors have a negative temperature
coefficient, which means the resistance decreases as
temperature increases.
Mechatronics I

Thermistors

 A very desirable feature of these devices is their

high sensitivity. A relatively small change in
temperature can produce a large change in
resistance.

 Thermistors come in a wide range of resistances,

from a few ohms to 1 MΩ, selection of which
depends on the temperature range of interest.
Higher-resistance models are used for higher
temperatures, to increase the sensitivity, and to
keep the sensor from drawing too much current.
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Thermistors
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Thermistors

 The relationship between the resistance

and temperature can be approximated
as:
R(T)= R(To) exp[(1/T-1/To)]

where T in Kelvin, To is the reference

temperature,  is the temperature
coefficient of the material.
Mechatronics I

Thermistor Bridge Circuit

R3 R2
Vo Vs (  )
RT  R3 R1  R2
Question: choose bridge resistors
to maximize bridge sensitivity:
dV0 dV0 1 dRT
Q RT
dT dRT RT dT
Answer:
R2 R3 RT
Mechatronics I

Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

 Integrated-circuit temperature sensors

come in various configurations.

 The LM34 produces an output voltage

that is proportional to Fahrenheit
temperature.

 The LM35 produces an output that is

proportional to Celsius temperature.

 The output voltage of the LM35 is

directly proportional to °C: Vout = 10
mV/°C
Mechatronics I

Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

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Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

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Dig More

 HEEPF Chapter on “Mechatronics Sensors”

 W.D. Cooper and A.D. Helfrick, “Electronic

Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques”, 3rd Ed., Prentice Hall.

 Christopher Kilian, “Modern Control

Technology: Components and Systems”,
Delmar Thomson Learning, 2nd Ed., Dec.
2000.