Values

Our values are things that we seem important and can include
concepts like equality, honesty, education, effort, perseverance,
loyalty, faithfulness…etc. Our values are very much individual and
they affect us at a deep subconscious level. Every decision we make
is based on our values and either we use them as avoidance or for
aspiration.

Values can be split into core values and secondary values. Our core
values help us to resolve any hidden conflicts, remove stresses and
give us a firm direction in life. Ultimately they are important for
helping you move towards solutions and away from problems.

Our secondary values are the values that we bring to the fore to use
when certain situations for arise. Eg You might make yourself
suddenly more ‘available’ because you have a friend in need and
this loyalty is something you value.
• Values. The basic, enduring convictions that a specific
mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally
or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode
of conduct or end state of existence.

Attributes of Values. There are two attributes of values

that can be used to rank order an individual’s values
into a hierarchical value system.
• 1. Content. This is how important the mode of conduct
or end-state of existence is to the individual.
• 2. Intensity. This is how important this value is in relation
to other values.
• Terminal Values refer to desirable end-states of existence. These are the goals
that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. These values
vary among different groups of people in different cultures.
The terminal values in RVS are:
• True Friendship
• Mature Love
• Self-Respect
• Happiness
• Inner Harmony
• Equality
• Freedom
• Pleasure
• Social Recognition
• Wisdom
• Salvation
• Family Security
• National Security
• A Sense of Accomplishment
• A World of Beauty
• A World at Peace
• A Comfortable Life
• An Exciting Life
Instrumental Values refer to preferable modes of behavior. These are preferable modes of behavior, or
means of achieving the terminal values.
The Instrumental Values are:
• Cheerfulness
• Ambition
• Love
• Cleanliness
• Self-Control
• Capability
• Courage
• Politeness
• Honesty
• Imagination
• Independence
• Intellect
• Broad-Mindedness
• Logic
• Obedience
• Helpfulness
• Responsibility
• Forgiveness
• Beliefs
Our beliefs on the other hand are assumptions that we make about
the world. They grow from what we see, hear, experience, read
and think about and they apply not only how we see ourselves but
also how we see other people. We tend not to question our beliefs
because we are so certain about them and many of them stem
from childhood. Our beliefs can be changed or turned round by
the ‘re-programming’ of our subconscious. Like values our beliefs
can be split into two different types empowering
beliefs and limiting beliefs.
• Empowering beliefs help us to confidently make changes. We use
our empowering beliefs to make decisions in what can often be an
ambiguous world. Limiting beliefs do the exact opposite and keep
us rooted in particular positions. Our limiting beliefs are often
based on assumptions that are not true. For example – saying you
can’t learn a language. If you spend a lot of time saying that you
can’t do something then for that time it will be true.
 According to Katz and Scotland, “Attitude is a tendency or
predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that
object in a certain way”. Attitude is used in a generic sense,
as to what people perceive, feel and express their views about
a situation, object or other people. Attitude cannot be seen, but
the behaviour can be seen as an expression of attitude.
• Attitude can be defined as “individual’s feelings about or
inclinations (a person natural tedency) towards other persons,
objects, events or activities.” Attitude encompasses such
affective feelings as likes and dislikes and satisfaction and
dissatisfaction. Our needs, past experience, self-concept and
personality shape the beliefs, and opinions we hold towards
the perceived world.
What are attitudes component

Attitudes Cognitive Component

The opinion or belief segment of
Evaluative an attitude
statements or
judgments
Affective Component
concerning
objects, people, The emotional or feeling segment of
or events an attitude

Behavioral Component
An intention to behave in a certain way
toward someone or something
Cognitive component: Cognitive component of attitude is
related to value statement. It consists of belief, ideas, values and
other information that an individual may possess or has faith in.
Quality of working hard is a value statement or faith
that a manager may have.
 Affective component: Affective component of attitude is related to person’s
feelings and emotions about another person, which may be positive, negative or
neutral. I do not like angeilina because she is not hard working, or I like
cameron because she is hard working. It is an expression of feelings about a
person, object or situation.

(c) Behavioral component: Behavioral component of attitude is related to

impact of various situations or objects that lead to individual’s behaviour based
on cognitive and affective components. I do not like angelina because she is not
hard working is an affective component, I therefore would like to disassociate
myself with her, is a behavioural component and therefore I would avoid
angelina. Development of favourable attitude, and good relationship with
cameron is but natural. Individual’s favourable behaviour is an outcome of the
fact that cameron is hardworking. Cognitive and affective components are bases
for such behaviour. Former two components cannot be seen, only the behaviour
component can be seen. Former is important because it is a base for formation of
attitude.
 Types of Attitudes
Job Satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual
holds toward his or her job

Job Involvement
Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and
considering performance important to self-worth

Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and
wishing to maintain membership in the organization (Affective,
Normative, and Continuance Commitment)
• Affection for Your Job (Affective Commitment)
Affection for your job occurs when you feel a strong emotional attachment to
your organization, and to the work that you do. You'll most likely identify
with the organization's goals and values, and you genuinely want to be there.
If you're enjoying your work, you're likely to feel good, and be satisfied with
your job. In turn, this increased job satisfaction is likely to add to your
feeling of affective commitment.
Fear of Loss (Continuance Commitment)
This type of commitment occurs when you weigh up the pros and cons of
leaving your organization. You may feel that you need to stay at your
company, because the loss you'd experience by leaving it is greater than the
benefit you think you might gain in a new role. These perceived losses, or
"side bets," can be monetary (you'd lose salary and benefits); professional
(you might lose seniority or role-related skills that you've spent years
acquiring); or social (you'd lose friendships or allies).
The severity of these "losses" often increases with age and experience.
You're more likely to experience continuance commitment if you're in an
established, successful role, or if you've had several promotions within one
organization.
• Sense of Obligation to Stay (Normative Commitment)
This type of commitment occurs when you feel a sense of
obligation to your organization, even if you're unhappy in your
role, or even if you want to pursue better opportunities. You
feel that you should stay with your organization, because it's
the right thing to do.
This sense of obligation can stem from several factors. You
might feel that you should remain with your organization
because it has invested money or time in your training. Or
perhaps it provided a reward in advance, such as paying for
your college tuition.
This obligation can also result from your upbringing. For
instance, your family might have stressed that you should stay
loyal to your organization.
 Needs
Needs is defined as the measurable discrepancy
existing between a present state of affairs and a desired
state of affairs as asserted. Needs are deficiencies or
lacks of something that energize us to satisfy them.

Types of Needs
 Primary Needs
 Secondary Needs
 Motives
A motives is a person’s reason for choosing a specific behavior from among
specific alternative choices. Motives are derived from needs. It is the reason
for action of individuals which gives purpose and direction to certain
behaviors.

Primary motives: Primary motives are absolutely essential for a person to

satisfy. They are basic need of an individual that are essential for every body.

Secondary motives: When an individuals are satisfied with primary motives,

they move on the secondary motives. It is take into consideration when
primary motives and basic necessities are no longer an issue . Example power,
achievement etc.
 sensation

Sensation is a process in which sensory receptor is stimulated

producing nerve impulses that travel to the brain. It is the process
of receiving signals from external stimuli through sense organs
and paying attention to them. Sense organs are the ear, eyes,
nose, tounge and skin.
 Factors affecting sensation
Stimulus:
Stimulus is the force that impacts sensing. There is internal and
external stimulus. Internal stimuli are inside the body like muscles,
digestive system, glands etc. External stimuli are outside the body as heat,
cold, sound, scene etc. individual receives environmental information
through sense organ which provides impact on internal stimulus.

Receptor:
Receptor are attached to the sense organs. They covert environmental
information to neural events. Human beings uses specified receptor like
hearing cell located in the inner ear, seeing receptors includes rods and
cones located in the retina, and so on. They provide support to sense
organs from seeing information received from the external environment.
 Central Nervous System:
It is responsible for integrating sensory information and
responding accordingly. It consists of the spinal cord and brain.
The spinal cord consists of several parts. It connects the brain and
the main receptor and serves as a conductor for signals between
the brain and the rest of the body. The brain is responsible for
integrating most sensory information and coordinating body
function, both consciously and unconsciously.
 Emotion is defined as a short, intense feeling resulting from some event. Not
everyone reacts to the same situation in the same way. For example, a manager’s
way of speaking can cause one person to feel motivated, another to feel angry, and
a third to feel sad. Emotions can influence whether a person is receptive to advice,
whether they quit a job, and how they perform individually or on a team (Cole,
Walter, & Bruch, 2008; George & Jones, 1996; Gino & Schweitzer, 2008). Of
course, as you know, emotions can be positive or negative.

Emotions comprise of experiences of pain, joy or anger and form a central

component in determining the reactions of a human being when subjected to
various types of stimuli. Physiological, social and even cognitive processes can be
affected either directly or indirectly by emotional changes. For these reasons,
organizations try to change organizational practices and task designs towards
increasing positive emotions and minimizing the negative emotions so as to
increase the welfare of the members.
 Positive emotions such as joy, love, and surprise result from our
reaction to desired events. In the workplace, these events may
include achieving a goal or receiving praise from a superior.
Individuals experiencing a positive emotion may feel peaceful,
content, and calm. A positive feeling generates a sensation of
having something you didn’t have before. As a result, it may
cause you to feel fulfilled and satisfied. Positive feelings have
been shown to dispose a person to optimism, and a positive
emotional state can make difficult challenges feel more
achievable (Kirby, 2001). This is because being positive can lead
to upward positive spirals where your good mood brings about
positive outcomes, thereby reinforcing the good mood
(Frederickson & Joiner, 2002).
• Negative emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness can result from undesired
events. In the workplace, these events may include not having your opinions
heard, a lack of control over your day-to-day environment, and unpleasant
interactions with colleagues, customers, and superiors. Negative emotions play a
role in the conflict process, with those who can manage their negative emotions
finding themselves in fewer conflicts than those who do not.

• The unwanted side effects of negative emotions at work are easy to see: An angry
colleague is left alone to work through the anger; a jealous colleague is excluded
from office gossip, which is also the source of important office news. But you may
be surprised to learn that negative emotions can help a company’s productivity in
some cases. Anger at another company’s success, for example, can spark a burst of
positive effort on behalf of a competitor. Jealousy about another division’s sales
figures may inspire a rival division to work harder. While negative emotions can
be destructive in the workplace, they can inspire bursts of valuable individual
action to change situations that aren’t working the way they should (Jordan,
Lawrence, & Troth, 2006). The key is to promote the positive emotions and work
to manage the negative ones so they don’t spread throughout the organization and
become the norm.
 Cognitive dissonance
• Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that results
from holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes.
People tend to seek consistency in their attitudes and
perceptions, so this conflict causes unpleasant feelings of
unease or discomfort.1
• The inconsistency between what people believe and how they
behave motivates them to engage in actions that will help
minimize feelings of discomfort. People attempt to relieve this
tension in different ways, such as by rejecting, explaining
away, or avoiding new information.
• Everyone experiences cognitive dissonance to some degree but
that doesn't mean that it is always easy to recognize. Some
signs that what you are feeling might be related to dissonance
include:
• Feeling uncomfortable before doing something or
making a decision
• Trying to justify or rationalize a decision you've made or action
you have taken
• Feeling embarrassed or ashamed about something you've done
and trying to hide your actions from other people
• Experiencing guilt or regret about something you've done in the
past
• Doing things because of social pressure or a
fear of missing out (FOMO), even if it wasn't something you
wanted to do
 Examples of Cognitive Dissonance
• You want to be healthy, but you don't exercise regularly or eat a
nutritious diet. You feel guilty as a result.

• You know that smoking (or drinking too much) is harmful to your health,
but you do it anyway. You rationalize this action by pointing to your high
stress levels.
• You'd like to build up your savings but tend to spend extra cash as soon as
you get it. You regret this decision later, such as when facing an
unexpected expense that you don't have the money to cover.

• You have a long to-do list but spend the day watching your favorite shows
instead. You don't want your spouse to know, so you try to make it look
like you've worked hard all day.
 Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable feeling caused by holding two
contradictory ideas simultaneously. The theory of cognitive dissonance proposes
that people have a motivational drive to reduce dissonance by changing their
attitudes, beliefs and behaviors, or by justifying or rationalizing them. It is one of
the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology.
Smoking is often postulated as an example of cognitive dissonance because it is
widely accepted that cigarettes can cause lung cancer, yet virtually everyone wants
to live a long and healthy life. In terms of the theory, the desire to live a long life is
dissonant with the activity of doing something that will most likely shorten one's
life. The tension produced by these contradictory ideas can be reduced by quitting
smoking, denying the evidence of lung cancer, or justifying one's smoking. For
example, smokers could rationalize their behavior by concluding that only a few
smokers become ill, that it only happens to very heavy smokers, or that if smoking
does not kill them, something else will. While chemical addiction may operate in
addition to cognitive dissonance for existing smokers, new smokers may exhibit a
simpler case of the latter.
• Take a moment to think about the following situation. You're at work, and
you notice that it appears to be okay if people take a longer lunch than one
hour. The company and the supervisors do not seem to address the issue,
yet you believe you should only take a 1-hour lunch, as that is what the
employee manual states. However, if the company seems okay with it, you
can see how you might be conflicted regarding what to do.
• What you are experiencing is cognitive dissonance, or the uncomfortable
tension that comes from holding two conflicting thoughts in the mind at
the same time. From our example, you believe you should only take an
hour lunch as that is 'right,' but it appears as if the company is okay with
you taking more than an hour lunch.
• The only thing that can happen now is for you to work through the
cognitive dissonance, and that is exactly what we'll be discussing.
• Change our behavior
The first aspect we can look at is changing your behavior. If we have this internal conflict,
we can at times change our behavior to help us deal with the conflict at hand. In the case of
the long lunch hour, we might decide we too can take a longer lunch and thus eliminate the
cognitive dissonance that is present in our minds. By removing one of the conflicting issues,
in a sense making a decision or choice between the two, we leave ourselves with no choice
and thus no conflict.
• Justify our behavior by changing the conflicting cognition
Potentially, we will not change our behavior. Maybe we believe it is right and correct and
not something we should change. Thus, we will begin to justify the behavior, or, for lack of a
better term, make it right in our own minds. Maybe we think all the people that take those
long lunches are just not going to be here long because they are not showing the company
they care. Here, we are justifying why we are acting the way we act and again removing one
aspect of the conflict.
• Justify our behavior by adding new cognitions
We can add new concepts, ideas, or behaviors to explain or justify conflicts - to transform
nonsense into sense. For our issue that we have been talking about, we might start to believe
that the people that take the long lunch maybe work late each day, and that is why they take
the longer lunch, and maybe the company is okay with that. In a sense, you added a new
cognition to the conflict, and that one justified the cognitive dissonance that you had going
on in your mind.