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    Pathology Ppt Final - Remya

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    Pathology Ppt Final - Remya

    Uploaded by

    Maheshwari A
    1 views31 pages

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    1 views31 pages

    Pathology Ppt Final - Remya

    Uploaded by

    Maheshwari A

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    of 31

    PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

    Remya C Alex
    23PSYB46
    MAJOR DEPRESSIVE
    DISORDER
    Expected to be the No 1 cause of disease burden worldwide by
    2030
    Symptoms?

    • Emotional symptoms

    • Physiological symptoms

    • Behavioral symptoms

    • Cognitive symptoms
    Emotional symptoms

    • Feelings of depressed, hopelessness, worthlessness, or low self-esteem.

    • Feeling ‘blah’

    • Increased irritability

    • Inability to experience any pleasure – anhedonia

    • Lose a sense of humor

    • Crying spell
    Physiological symptoms

    • Appetite and weight changes – Decreased eating or increased eating

    • Sleep disturbance – decreased or increased sleep

    • Unexplained aches and pain - Headaches, stomachaches, or other body


    aches

    • Aversion to sexual activity - reduced sexual interest and arousal.


    Behavioral symptoms

    • Agitation – inability to sit still, pacing, hand wringling

    • Retardation – slowed speech, thinking, and body movements

    • Decreased energy or tiredness and fatigue

    • It may appear that they no longer care about their grooming or personal
    cleanliness.

    • A person’s grades or job performance may slip during a depressive episode.


    Cognitive symptoms

    • Unrealistic negative views - pessimistic, self-critical beliefs

    • Guilty preoccupation – delusional proportions

    • Rumination- continually thinking or repeatedly reviewing distressing events

    • Impaired ability to concentrate, remember things, or make decisions

    • Suicidal thinking - Talk about suicide, death, and/or no reason to live.


    Should a person show all these symptoms to consider having
    MDD?
    DSM 5 6 Psychomotor retardation

    7 Inappropriate guilt/
    1 Low mood worthless
    one of these
    must be present 8 Lower concentration
    2 Anhedonia

    9 Recurrent thoughts
    3 Weight gain/loss of death

    4 Sleep disturbance 5 or more present for 2 weeks


    Clinical distress/functional impairment
    5 Fatigue/ low energy
    Not due to substances/ other conditions
    Some individuals who
    meet the basic criteria for
    diagnosis of a major
    depressive episode also
    have additional patterns
    of symptoms or features
    What causes major depressive disorder?
    Biological
    dimension

    Sociocultural Psychological
    dimension
    Depression dimension

    Social dimension
    Biological
    dimension

    -Serotonin
    1
    Low level of neurotransmitters -Nor epinephrine
    -Dopamine
    Antidepressants
    When biochemical systems are functioning normally, – increase
    neurotransmitters regulate our emotions and basic availability of
    physiological processes involving appetite, sleep, neurotransmitters
    energy, and libido.
    Biological
    dimension

    2 Allele 5 – HTTLPR gene – serotonin transporter gene


    Short - Increased vulnerability to depression
    Long - Promotes resilience
    Damage hippocampus
    3 Over reactivity of HPA axis & (i.e. neurons die and fail to
    regenerate)
    overproduction of stress-related
    Deplete neurotransmitters
    hormone such as cortisol
    (mainly serotonin)
    Biological
    dimension

    4 Shrinkage of hippocampus

    5
    Circadian rhythm disturbance – sleep, body temperature, propensity
    to REM sleep, and secretion of cortisol, thyroid-stimulating
    hormone, and growth hormone
    Psychological
    dimension

    1 Behavioral explanation – Depression occurs when people receive


    insufficient social reinforcement.

    - Unemployment, divorce, or the death of a loved one can reduce available


    reinforcement (e.g., love, affection, companionship)

    - A person participates in few activities that are potentially reinforcing.

    - There are few reinforcements available in the environment.

    - A person’s behavior and social skills result in limited reinforcement.


    Psychological
    dimension

    2
    Cognitive explanations - depression is caused by the way people think and
    negative thoughts

    • Errors in thinking result in pessimism, damaging self-views, and feelings


    of helplessness.

    • Depression is a disturbance in thinking rather than a disturbance in mood

    • In other words, the way we interpret our experiences affects our emotions
    Types of Faulty Thinking (Cognitive distortions)

    • All-or-nothing thinking (black-and-white thinking): Seeing things


    in only two categories instead of along a spectrum

    • Overgeneralization: Taking one instance and generalizing it to an


    overall pattern

    • Mental filter (selective abstraction): Focusing exclusively on certain,


    usually negative, aspects of a situation while ignoring positive ones
    • Personalization: Taking responsibility for events outside of your
    control.

    • Mind reading: Assuming you know what others are thinking without
    sufficient evidence

    • Magnification and minimization: Exaggerating the importance of


    negative details (magnification) and downplaying positive ones
    (minimization), often referred to as "catastrophizing”
    Psychological
    dimension

    • Cognitive distortions can


    contribute to the
    negative cognitive triad,
    which is a negative view
    of the self, the world,
    and the future
    Psychological
    dimension

    3
    • Learned helplessness

    • A learned belief that one is helpless and unable to affect outcomes.

    BLOEN

    unsolvable
    4
    • Attributional styles – how we explain events that occur in our lives
    can have powerful effect in our moods

    • Internal-external: Who or what is responsible for the event?

    • Stable-unstable: How permanent the cause is?

    • Global-specific: How pervasive the cause is?

    • Negative attributional style – Internal, stable, global

    • Positive attributional style –External, unstable/temporary, specific


    cold
    Social dimension

    1 Lack of social support/ resources – Fail to develop secure


    attachment styles and trusting relationships

    2 Distressing social interactions

    3
    Social stressors and life events - divorce, unemployment, financial
    struggles, or loss of a loved one are significant triggers for depression.
    Sociocultural
    dimension

    1 Gender difference - women are about twice as likely as men to suffer


    from depression
    2 Cultural values of depression - some cultures, depression is expressed in
    the form of somatic or bodily complaints, rather than as sadness
    3
    Gay/ lesbian/ bisexual orientation
    4 Exposure to discrimination
    Treatments
    Biomedical treatment
    • Medication - Antidepressant medications increase the availability of certain
    neurotransmitters in the brain.
    • Circadian – related treatment - Some treatments for depression involve efforts to
    reset the circadian clock. For example, a night of total sleep deprivation followed
    by a night of sleep recovery can improve depressive symptoms. specially designed
    lights is an effective and well-tolerated treatment for those with a seasonal pattern
    of depression
    • Brain Stimulation Therapies - Electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation,
    and transcranial magnetic stimulation are sometimes used to treat severe or
    chronic treatment-resistant depression, especially when life-threatening symptoms
    such as refusal to eat or intense suicidal intent are present
    Psychological and Behavioral Treatments
    • Behavioral Activation Therapy based on principles of operant conditioning,
    focuses on increasing participation in enjoyable activities and social interactions.
    • Interpersonal Psychotherapy focused on current interpersonal problems. This
    approach presumes that depression occurs within an interpersonal context, therapy
    focuses on relationship issues.
    • Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) focuses on
    altering the negative thought patterns and distorted thinking associated with
    depression.
    • Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy involves calm awareness of one’s present
    experience, thoughts, and feelings, and promotes an attitude of acceptance rather
    than judgment, evaluation, or rumination.
    “You just had a bad time
    You will do better next time
    This too shall pass”
    References
    Association, A. P. (2021). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
    (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Publishing.
    Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2014). Abnormal Psychology.
    Comer, R. J. (2015). Abnormal Psychology. Worth.
    Sue, D., Sue, D. W., Sue, S., & Sue, D. M. (2015). Understanding abnormal
    behavior. Cengage Learning.
    THANK YOU

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