JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD

Material Science and Metallurgy

II Year B.Tech.I Sem

MODULE -III
Ms. Sindhu B
Assistant Professor C
Dpmt of Metallurgical Engineering
JNTUHCEH
 Alloy
An alloy is a combination of two or more elements of
which one of the element should be a metal in major
proportion.
Example : Brass Cu-Zn , Steel Fe-C etc
• Metal present in larger proportion is called base metal
while other metallic or non-metallic element is known
as alloying element.
• Elements may combine in different ways to form alloys
 Components and Phases
• Components:
The elements or compounds that are mixed initially (Al and Cu).
• Phases:
A phase is a homogenous, physically distinct and mechanically separable
portion of the material with a given chemical composition and structure (a and b)

• For many alloy systems and at some specific temperature, there is a maximum
concentration of solute atoms that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid
solution; this is called a solubility limit.

Aluminum- Copper
Alloy
 Classification of Alloying
elements
With respect to the relation with carbon, all alloying elements can
be classified as;
 Carbide forming elements:
 Form carbides
 Eg: Ti, Zr, V, Nb, W, Mo, Cr, Mn etc
 Neutral elements:
 Neither form carbide nor graphite
 Eg: Co
 Graphitizing elements:
 Carbide decompose into graphite
 Eg: Si, Ni, Cu and Al
Classification of Alloying elements
 With respect to the effect on temperature intervals in which the allotropic
forms of iron exist, alloying elements can be classified as;
 Austenite stabilizers:
 Raise A4 lower A3
 Beyond certain % of alloying element, A3 may become less than room
temperature and these alloys show austenite from room temperature to
melting point and such steels are called austenitic steels
 Eg: Ni, Mn, Cu, C, N etc

 Ferrite stabilizers:
 Lower A4 raise A3
 At a certain composition, A4 and A3 merge such that ferrite exists from
room temperature to melting point and such steels are called ferritic steels
 Eg: Cr, W, Mo, V, Si, Al, B, Zr, Nb, P, Ti etc
Purpose of Alloying
– Strengthening of the ferrite.
 – Improved corrosion resistance.
– Better hardenability
 – Grain size control
– Greater strength
– Improved machine ability
– Improved high or low temperature stability
– Improved ductility
– Improved toughness
– Better wear resistance.
Properties and uses of alloying
elements
 Manganese:
 Either less than 2% or more than 10% because Mn content between 2-10%
induces brittleness
 Dissolves in ferrite and increases yield strength, tensile strength, toughness and
hardness
 Least expensive &Enhances response to heat treatment
 Normalizing improves impact property of manganese steels
 Combines with S and forms MnS and reduces detrimental effects of FeS
 Improves machinability
 Applications:
 Low carbon steels with Mn content 1.65-1.9%: Rails, gears, axles, connecting
rods, crankshafts, bolts, nuts, studs, steering levers, aircraft fittings and gun
barrels
 Properties and uses of alloying
elements
 Hadfield steel:
 1-1.2 % C, 12-14% Mn
 Extremely tough, wear resistant and non-magnetic on suitable heat
treatment
 Mn is austenitic stabilizer
 Applications: Jaw plates for stone crusher, frogs in rail road tracks,
dredge bucket and power shovel teeth
Properties and uses of alloying
elements
 Nickel:
 Dissolves in ferrite and increases tensile strength, hardness and
toughness without decreasing ductility
 Added upto 5% to increase tensile strength and toughness
 Austenitic stabilizer
 Increases corrosion and oxidation resistance if added in excess of 5%
 Increases impact resistance of steels at low temperature
 Increases hardenability of steels
 Applications: Steels with 2-3% Ni are used in large forgings, castings and
structural components which cannot conveniently quenched, locomotive boilers,
bolts, railway axles and bridge structures
 Properties and uses of
alloying elements
 Chromium:
 Increases hardenability
 Forms carbides and increases hardness and wear
resistance of steels
 Increases corrosion and oxidation resistance when
added in substantial amount
 Increases service life and performance of steels
 May cause temper embrittlement
 Surface markings (Chrome lines) may be formed

Applications:
Gears, jaws of wrenches, machine gun barrels, axles
and shafts, cutting tools
 Properties and uses of
alloying elements
 Tungsten:
 Increases hardenability
 Forms carbides and increases hardness and wear resistance of steels
 Resistance to tempering (Secondary hardening)
 Refines grain size, and carbide prevents grain coarsening
 Reduces tendency of decarburisation
 Molybdenum:
 Reduces temper embrittlement (added upto 0.5%)
 Properties similar to W
 Resistance to grain coarsening and decarburization is less as compared to
W
Properties and uses of alloying
elements
 Vanadium:
 Excellent resistance to grain coarsening
 Improves fatigue and creep resistance; hence used in leaf and coil springs,
heavy duty axles, gears, pinions, valves etc
 Strong deoxidiser
 Excellent wear resistance and resistance to tempering
 Titanium
 Strong carbide former
 High wear resistance with no loss of toughness
 Prevents grain coarsening
 Cobalt
 Neutral element
 Only element reducing hardenability of steels
 Resistance to tempering
 Applications: Permanent magnets, Cemented carbide cutting tools
Properties and uses of alloying
elements
 Aluminum:
 Powerful deoxidiser
 Prevents grain coarsening
 Boron:
 0.001-0.003% B increases hardenability of medium carbon steels
 Reduces grain size but does not prevent grain coarsening
 Improves machinability
 Boron diffused steels have high surface hardness, wear resistance
and
corrosion resistance
 Boron diffused surfaces of hot forging dies considerably increase service life
 Used for control rods in nuclear reactors
 Phase
s
Homogenous Phases Non-Homogenous Phases or
Heterogeneous Phases or
Mechanical Mixtures

Solid Solutions Intermediate Alloy Phases • Can be any combination i.e.

combination of pure metal and a
2 metals mixed 2 metals mixed solid solution (homogenous
within solubility beyond solubility phase)
• combination of pure metal and
limits limits
an intermediate alloy phase, etc.

Substitutional Interstitial Intermediate Intermediate

Solid Solid Solid
Solutions Solutions Solutions Compounds

• Chemical Compounds
• Inter-metallic Compounds
Ordered Disordered
• Interstitial Compounds
Substitutional Substitutional
• Electron Compounds
Solid Solid
• Lave’s Phases
Solutions Solutions
 Homogenous phases
• When two elements are completely soluble into solid state from liquid
state and form compounds by chemical reaction, they form phases known
as homogenous phases.
• Each component of such phases loses its own identity, properties and
crystal structure.
Solid Solutions
• When two elements completely mix or dissolve in each other in liquid as
well as solid state (during process of solidification), then the resulting
structure or phase is known as a solid solution.
• In a solid solution, there can be more than two components. But in general,
the metal which is in higher proportion is known as base metal or solvent
and the other component (metal or non-metal) is called alloying element
or solute.
 Solid
solutions

Substitutional Solid Solution

 Solid
solutions

Disordered Substitutional Solid Solution

Substitutional Solid Solution

Ordered Substitutional Solid Solution

Interstitial Solid Solution Prof. Naman M.

 Types of Solid
Solutions
1) Substitutional Solid Solution
• If atoms of alloying element (solute) replace
the atoms of the base metal (solvent) and
occupy their normal lattice sites, the resulting
solid solution is known as Substitutional
solid solution.
• For example, Copper atoms may substitute
Nickel atoms without disturbing their FCC
structure of Nickel.
• Thus they have unlimited solid solubility
whereas in case of Brass, FCC Copper
atoms (base/solvent) are replaced by HCP i.e.
Zinc atoms (alloying element/solute) which
has limited solubility.

Prof. Naman M.
 2) Interstitial Solid Solution
• In Interstitial Solid Solution, the alloying element (solute) atoms do not replace the
base metal (solvent) atoms but enter into the empty spaces or interstices of the
lattice structure of the solvent atoms.
• As the empty spaces of lattice structure are limited in size, the interstitial solid
solution can only from when the solute atom is small enough to fit into these
spaces.
• The radii of atoms of commercial alloys is in the range of 1.2-1.6A0. It means that
the atoms with atomic radius less than 1A0 are likely to form interstitial solid
solution.
• It may be noted that if the alloying element is a transition element, there are
maximum chances of formation of Interstitial Solid Solution. This is not only
because of their small atomic radii but also due to their unusual electronic
structure.

• Examples of Interstitial Solid Solutions are – C

in Steel causing hardening, N in Steel causing
hardening, H in Steel during welding causing
embrittlement of weld area.
 Hume Rothery Rule’s for Solid
Solution
• Hume Rothery’s rules govern the formation of substitutional solid
solution and aid in the proper selection of such alloying elements :

1. Crystal Structure Factor

2. Relative Size Factor
3. Chemical Affinity Factor
4. Relative Valance Factor

1. Crystal Structure Factor of two metals

(elements) should be same.
 2. Relative Size Factor
• Atomic diameter shall be fairly similar, since atoms differing directly
greatly in size cannot be accommodated readily in the same structure (as a
substitutional solid solution).
• When the term size factor is employed and extensive solid solubility is
encountered only when the two different atoms differ size by less than
15%,called a favorable size factor.
• If the relative size factor is between 8%-15%, the alloy system usually
shows a minimum and If this factor is greater than 15% substitutional
solid solution formation is very limited.
 3. Chemical affinity Factor
• The greater the chemical affinity of two metals, the more restricted
their solubility is their solid solubility.
• When their chemical affinity of two metals is great, two metals tend
to form an intermediate phase rather than a solid solution.
• Generally, the farther apart the elements are in the periodic table
the greater the chemical affinity.
• If the elements
have similar
electronegativity,
they will make a
solid solution,
• if they have a
different
electronegativity, a
intermetallic
compound
 Intermediate Alloy
Phases
• Addition of an alloying element to a given metal to an
excessive amount than solid solubility results in a second
phase appearance with the solid solutions. This second
phase is known as Intermediate Alloy Phase.
• It differs in both crystal structure and properties from
solid solutions.
• Intermediate alloy phases could be either intermediate
solid solutions or intermediate compounds.
 4. Relative valence Factor
• Two elements should have same valence.
• Consider a two atoms, one with large valance electrons and the
other with small number of valance electron.
• It has been found that high valance can dissolve only a small
amount of a lower valance metal , while the lower valance metal
may have good solubility for higher valance metal.
 Types of Intermediate Alloy
Phases

Intermediate Compounds
• When different type of atoms combine in a definite proportion they
form compounds.
• Compounds can be denoted by chemical formula.
• Most common examples of compounds are water (H2O) and common salt (NaCl).
• Unlike mechanical mixtures, the combining elements in compounds lose their
individual identity and characteristic properties.

• For example – Sodium is very active metal and oxidizes rapidly. Therefore , it is
usually stored under kerosene. Chlorine, if inhaled, is a poisonous gas. Now,
when Sodium and Chlorine combine they form Sodium Chloride or table salt
which is a harmless compound.
 Types of Intermediate Alloy
Chemical Compounds :
Phases
• They are known as valency compounds.
• When two chemically dissimilar elements have greater chemical affinity for
each other , they form chemical compounds.
• For example, mixing of electropositive elements like Na, K, Al, Mg, etc. with
electronegative elements like Sn, Pd, As, Sb, Se, S, etc. result into chemical
compounds like AlSb, Mg3As2,Mg2Sn, MgSe, Cu2Se, CaSe, etc.
Intermetallic Compounds :
• Unlike chemical compounds, intermetallic compounds rarely obey the laws
of chemical valence.
• They have complex lattice structures and are characterized by high
hardness,
brittleness and melting point.
• Examples are Cu2Zn3, Cu3Sn4, CuAl2, SnSb, etc.
 Types of Intermediate Alloy
Phases

Interstitial Compounds :

• They are formed when the solubility limit of interstitial elements in a solid
solution is exceeded.
• Like most intermetallic compounds, interstitial compounds do not obey
normal valency rules.
• The open spaces between the atoms are known as interstices.
• Atoms of elements like H, B ,O, C, and N have small radii and therefore they
can occupy the interstitial space between atoms of other metals.
• The base metal (solvent) is generally a transition, metal like Sc, Ti, Ta, W, Fe,
• Other examples of this group include TiC, Fe4N, W2C, TiH, etc.
 Types of Intermediate Alloy
Phases

Electron Compounds
• These are intermediate phases which again do not obey the normal valency
rules.
• They can be characterized by a definite ratio of valence electrons to the no. of
atoms (3/2, 21/13 or 7/4) with a particular crystal lattice corresponding to each
• Electronic compounds can be formed by 2 metals from following groups :
• Group-1 : Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, Co, Ni, Pd and Pt
• Group-2: Be, Zn, Cu, Al, Sn and Si
• Electron compounds are found in many alloys of commercial importance like
copper-zinc, copper-tin, copper-aluminium, copper-silicon, etc.