INTRODUCTION TO

BRAIN AND SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
By D. N. TATAMENTAN
 CHAPTER 1:
PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.1 DEFINITIONS

1.2 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.3 PSYCHOLOGISTS AND THEIR

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
1.1. Definitions
Psychology is the science of the
mind and behaviour
Psychological data are always based
on observed behaviour - inferences
made re: mind
Behaviour: Any process or activity that is
directly observable
Mind: Can’t be observed directly (e.g.,
thought processes, motivation, etc.)
Black Box
History of Psychology
• First ‘psychologists’ were
philosophers (e.g., Aristotle,
Socrates, Plato)
• Speculation about the source of
human knowledge, nature of mind
and soul, mind-body relationship,
whether these constructs could be
studied objectively
• Determinism vs. Free Will
History of Psychology
• Descartes - French philosopher
• Dualism - man consists of 2 distinct but
conjoined entities: Material (body) and
immaterial (soul)
• Body is part of natural world and can be
studied scientifically
• Soul - not bound by natural law -
“unstudy-able”
History of Psychology

Descartes cont’d:
concerned with mechanical processes of
behaviour which he felt were unrelated to
soul
Animals don’t have souls, yet engage in
many basic physiological behaviours that
humans do
Any activity performed by humans that is
qualitatively not different from what
animals can do, occurs without the soul
role of senses, organs, reflexes
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
British and tutor to King Charles II
He believed the soul to be a meaningless
concept
Materialism: nothing exists but matter &
energy
All human behaviour can be understood
through physical processes
Thought = product of brain-body
machinery, subject to natural law
Empiricism
John Locke – philosopher in the
early 1600’s
Empiricism: Knowledge is gained
through our senses and experience,
not through speculation
British Empiricists: all human
knowledge and thought derive from
sensory experience
Thought is subject to natural law and
may be studied scientifically
Psychophysiology
19th century - emphasis on machinery of
behaviour
Central nervous system, sensation and
perception
Reflexology - every human behaviour is
understood as a reflex, initiated by
environmental stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
1905 Nobel Prize for dog salivation
research
Conditioned reflexes
Reliance on precise measurement of
behaviour and presentation of stimuli
Charles Darwin
Consistent with theory of evolution,
traits and behaviours can be
examined for the function it serves in
allowing the organism to survive and
reproduce in natural environment
He helped convince intellectual
world that humans are part of nature,
just like animals, and can be
understood through the methods of
science
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
• Commonly viewed as the father of
psychological science
• Wrote first psych text ever
• Founded the first psych lab at
University of Leipzig (Germany) in 1879
• Utilized introspection to study
consciousness
• To look inward to examine one’s own
conscious experience
• examination of the simplest mental
processes - sensations, memories, etc.
• Fast occurring processes = simplest
Edward Titchner
Student of Wundt’s
Laboratory at Cornell University
Pioneered the Structuralist view of
psychology
The proper goal of psychology was the
identification of the elements/structures
of the mind and determine how they
combine with one another
Wundt correctly warned of limitations of
introspection
William James
First psychological lab & text in
America – Harvard University (1890)
Rejected structuralism - can’t
understand a house by looking at the
bricks
Influenced by Darwin – natural
selection and adaptive behaviour
Functionalism: the study of the
function of behaviour, and how
people behave in order to adapt to
Sigmund Freud
Pioneered psychoanalysis in order to
understand how the unconscious
influences human behavior.
Conceptualized the mind as having three
components;
 the Id, responsible for our drives to meet our
physiological needs and desires;
 the Superego, incorporates the rules and morals of
the society we live in
 the Ego, the conscious part of our minds that
mediates between the Id and Superego so that we
may get our needs met in a socially acceptable way.
John B. Watson
Mental constructs were of no value
in explaining human behaviour, and
only obscured psychological
investigation and theory
All behaviour reflexive – all behavior
can be understood as
reactions/responses to events in the
environment
Spent latter part of his career in
advertising
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist – Operant Learning &
Conditioning
Disagreed with emphasis on reflexes
Focused on consequences of
behaviour
Behaviour contingent on influence of
reinforcers in one’s environment
Behaviourism dominated psychology
from 1920’s – 1980’s
Albert Bandura
Social Learning Theory
Observational learning
Aggression/Bo-Bo Doll
Modelling
Carl Rogers
Felt psychoanalysis and behaviourism
devalued the conscious human mind
Humanistic or Client-Centered Psychology
(Maslow)
Theory based on assumption that we all
have an inherent actualizing tendency -
beyond basic needs
tendency stunted by others who criticize
and inhibit
Unconditional, positive regard
Cognitive Psychology
Increasingly popular since 1970’s
emphasizes how people take in,
organize and make mental
representations and store
information. Also studied how these
processes effect behavior
thought mediates behaviour
How we think about things
influences emotion, decision making,
behaviour
Biology & the Brain
Role of brain functioning as it relates
to behaviour and psychological
processes
Heredity and behavioural genetics
neurochemical processes of memory
& thought
magnetic fields
technologically based
 CHAPTER 2:

THE BRAIN – ANATOMY AND

FUNCTIONS (recall)
2.1. BRAIN ANATOMY
2.2. BASIC BRAIN FUNCTIONS
2.3. EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS
2.4. FACTS ABOUT THE BRAIN
2.5. MEDITATION AND EFFECTS
2.6. THE AMYGDALA HIJACK
2.7. PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS AND CONSEQUENCES
2.8. RELAXATION AND RELAXATION RESPONSE
 CHAPTER I: THE BRAIN
The brain is an organ of soft nervous
tissue contained in the skulls of
vertebrates functioning as the
coordinating center of sensation,
intellectual and nervous activity.
It is subdivided into 6 major parts namely:

1. Midbrain
2. Pons Brainstem
3. Medulla
4. Diencephalon
5. Cerebrum
6. Cerebellum
 Brainstem
 Midbrain, Pons, and
Medulla make up
the brainstem
 Brainstem connects to
the spinal cord
 Brainstem contains
neurons that relay
signals from the spinal
cord to the cerebrum and
cerebellum
 Midbrain
Within the midbrain, there are cell bodies
containing red nucleus which is for
controlling muscle coordination and
maintains posture
PARTS OF THE Midbrain
 Pons
Contains neurons that relay signals for:
 Chewing
 sensations to the head and face
 Certain respiratory functions
 Eye movement
 Taste
 Salivation
 Facial expressions
 equilibrium
Medulla
Contains tracts that travel in both directions
between the brain and spinal cord
Various nuclei of the medulla transmits nerve
impulses that control:
 Heart rate
 Constriction
 Dilation of blood vessels
 Blood pressure
 Swallowing
 sneezing
Diencephalon
Composed of two major compartments:
Thalamus
Complex of nuclei that facilitate hearing, taste,
vision, sensation, wakefulness, voluntary motor
control
Hypothalamus
Collection of nuclei that controls the autonomic
nervous system, secretion from various glands,
heart rate, movement of food in the intestines,
rage, aggression, body temperature, hunger, thirst,
sleep
 CEREBRUM

Cerebrum
• Two Hemispheres
Accounts for approximately 80% of total
mass of the brain
Uppermost 2-to 4-mm layer of the
cerebrum is crammed with cell bodies
and neuroglia, called the cerebral cortex
 Cerebral Cortex
Functions:
Human consciousness
Motor skills
Awareness of subtle variations in the
external environment
Language
Reasoning
Imaginations
Composed of regions with specific
neuronal responsibilities
Beneath the
cerebral cortex
Number of different nuclei
Basal ganglia contain a number of different nuclei
and subdivisions within some of these nuclei:
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus pallidus
Subthalamic nucleus
Nuclei interconnect with neurons of the cerebral
cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus and control
involuntary skeletal muscle movements
Other neuronal
structures
Limbic system
 Lies deep within the cerebrum near the diencephalon and
midbrain
Hipocampus
 Component of the limbic system
 Contributes to emotional states, such as fear, anger, rage,
pleasure, and sorrow.
 Also with learning and memory capabilities
 Cerebellum

Located in lower posterior portion of the brain

Responsible for responding to signals from muscles,
tendons, joints, and sense organs
Controls skeletal muscle contractions, coordination,
muscle tone, balance and posture
Executive Functioning

Term used to describe complex brain

functions like:
Planning ahead
Anticipating consequences
Supplying motivation and drive
Suppressing inappropriate behaviors
Normal development of executive
function
Gradual process
Starts around pre-teen years
Fully develops only in the 20s (or never!)
Beneficial effects of
meditation
Decreased anxiety
Better sleep
Better problem-solving
Increased empathy
Better patient care
Effects of meditation on the human
brain
Increased cortical thickness in
Prefrontal cortex
Increased attention
Enhancement of complex cognitive behaviors
Right anterior insula
Integration of body sensation, emotions

• S. Lazar, Ph.D., Massachusetts General Hospital 2006

The “Amygdala Hijack”

Term used to describe

sudden, intense,
unconscious
emotional response
which “takes over”
higher brain centers
Physiology of stress

Activation of fight or flight mechanism

Overactivity of sympathetic nervous
system
Catecholamine release
Dopamine
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Cortisol release
Neuropeptide S
Consequences of stress

Cortisol release:
Impaired concentration, short-term memory
Hippocampal atrophy

Neuropeptide S
Insomnia
Sense of urgency
The “Relaxation Response”

Term coined by Herbert Benson, M.D.

Cardiologist at Harvard
Lifelong research on role of stress on health,
and positive effects of eliciting relaxation
Basic tenet: stress response and relaxation
response are both hard wired, and mutually
exclusive
Stress
response

Relaxation
response
Eliciting the Relaxation Response

 The following is the generic technique taught at the

Benson-Henry Institute:
 Pick a focus word, short phrase, or prayer that is firmly
rooted in your belief system, such as "one," "peace,"
"The Lord is my shepherd," "Hail Mary full of grace," or
"shalom."
 Sit quietly in a comfortable position.
 Close your eyes.
 Breathe slowly and naturally, and as you do, say your
focus word, sound, phrase, or prayer silently to
yourself as you exhale.
 Assume a passive attitude. Don't worry about how well
you're doing. When other thoughts come to mind, simply
say to yourself, "Oh well," and gently return to your
repetition.
 Continue for 10 to 20 minutes.
 Do not stand immediately. Continue sitting quietly for a
minute or so, allowing other thoughts to return. Then
open your eyes and sit for another minute before rising.
 Practice the technique once or twice daily. Good times to
do so are before breakfast and before dinner.
 Don’t do the technique within 2 hours after a heavy meal.
 CHAPTER 3: SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
3.1. DEFINITION: What Is Social
Psychology?
3.2. HISTORICAL ROOTS OF SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
3.3. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY’S BIG IDEAS
3.4. THEORIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

The Power of Situations- case/example

3.5. METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Ethics of Experimentation
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