Introduction to Physiology

Sameen Anwar Rao-Lecturer-FAHS/EAHT

BS-Hons Cardiac Perfusion(KEMU)
M-phil-Medical Physiology(UVAS)
Introduction to Physiology

Sameen Anwar Rao-Lecturer-FAHS/EAHT

BS-Hons Cardiac Perfusion(KEMU)
M-phil-Medical Physiology(UVAS)
 Definition of Physiology
The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living
organisms and their parts. It deals with the functions and activities
of life or of living matter (such as organs, tissues, or cells) and of
the physical and chemical phenomena involved.
For example: how and why can heart automatically?
Physiology derived from two Greek words
Physis = nature
Logos = study
 History of Physiology
 The relationship between Anatomy(structure) and
Physiology(function) is emphasized by Aristotle.
 Galen Greek physician and surgeon first perform experiments to
understand function of the body.
 William Harvey was first physiologist in the modern sense to
describe the circulatory system and its relation with body in 17 th
century.
 Claude Bernard (1813-1878) was a French physiologist who
propounded the concept of milieu interieur or internal
environment and established physiology as the scientific basis of
medicine. He is also called the ‘father of modern physiology’
 Fields of Physiology
Physiology can be divided into following fields:
 Plant Physiology (the study of how plant functions)
 Animal Physiology (the study of how animal functions)
 Human Physiology (the study of how the human body works)
 Viral Physiology (a part of virology that investigates the
biological processes and activities of viruses)
 Cellular Physiology (the scientific study of physiological
processes operating within and among cells, and intracellular
communication and behaviour)
 Bacterial Physiology (concerns the life-supporting functions
and processes of bacteria)
 Levels of structural organization

Life processes of
the human body are
maintained at
several levels of
structural
organization. These
include
the chemical,
cellular, tissue,
organ, organ
system, and the
organism level.
 Cellular level of organization
The first and most basic
level of organization is
the cellular level. A cell is
the basic unit of life and
the smallest unit capable of
reproduction. While cells
vary greatly in their
structure and function
based on the type of
organism, all cells have a
few things in common
 Tissue level of organization
The tissue level of
organization consist
s of a group of cells
that work together
to accomplish one
or more specific
functions. There are
only four distinct
types of tissue in an
adult human
Cellular level of organization
 Key themes in physiology
1. Homeostasis:
“The maintenance of internal environment from the harms of
fluctuation in external environment”
Homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions
maintained by living systems. This is the condition of optimal functioning for
the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid
balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits.
2. Membrane Transport: Communication and movement across the cell
membranes in order to maintain steady and physiological state of the cell.
 Organ system
Integumentary system:
The integumentary system consists of the skin,
hair, nails, the subcutaneous tissue below the
skin, and assorted glands.
Functions:
 Provides a protective barrier against
mechanical, thermal and physical injury and
hazardous substances.
 Prevents loss of moisture.
 Reduces harmful effects of UV radiation.
 Acts as a sensory organ (touch, detects
temperature).
 Helps regulate temperature.
 An immune organ to detect infections etc.
 Skeletal system
Skeletal system:
In humans, the skeletal system consists of
bones, joints and associated cartilages
Functions:
• Shape and structure
• Protect organs
• Muscle attachment
• Produce blood cells
• Calcium storage
 Muscular system
Muscular system:
The muscular system is an organ system
consisting of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
muscle.
Functions:
• Permits movement of the body
• Maintains posture
• Maintains body temperature
• Controls heart beat
• Breathing
• Digestion
 Respiratory system
Respiratory system:
The respiratory system is the network of
organs and tissues that help you breathe. It
includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels
Functions:
• Gases exchange between blood and external
environment
• Provides O2 to body and remove CO2
• Maintains Ph of blood
 Digestive system
Digestive system:
The digestive system includes the mouth,
pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. It
also includes the salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas, which make digestive
juices and enzymes that help the body digest
food and liquids.
Functions:
• Breakdown food into smaller particles, digest
food and absorbs in circulatory system
• Remove excretory materials out of the body
 Renal system
Renal system:
The urinary system, also known as the urinary
tract or renal system, consists of the kidneys,
ureters, bladder, and the urethra.
Functions:
• Production of urine
• Removal of waste material
• Regulate blood pressure
• Maintains body fluids
 Cardiovascular system
Cardiovascular system:
The circulatory system (cardiovascular
system) pumps blood from the heart to the
lungs to get oxygen. The heart then sends
oxygenated blood through arteries to the rest
of the body. The veins carry oxygen-poor
blood back to the heart to start the circulation
process over
Functions:
• Circulate oxygen and remove carbon
dioxide
• Provide cells with nutrients
• Remove waste product to excretory organs
to disposal
 Organ systems inter-relationships

Organ systems
work
cooperatively
to carry out
necessary life
functions
 Body fluids
Body fluids, bodily fluids, or biofluids,
sometimes body liquids, are liquids within
the human body. In lean healthy adult men,
the total body water is about 60% of the
total body weight; it is usually slightly lower
in women.
For example if a person weights 70kg then
its total body water will be:
TBW=60% of body weight
TBW=60/100×70= 42L of water
 Body fluid compartments
Total body water can be subdivided into two major compartments,
1. Intracellular fluids: which is fluid inside cells (2/3 volume of total body
water, 40% of BW )
42×2/3=28L
2. Extracellular fluids: which is fluid outside of cell like in the blood and in
the interstitial tissues between cells.( 1/3 volume of total body water, 20%
of BW)
42×1/3=14L
Extracellular fluid is further divided into
A. Interstitial fluid(fluid between the cells)
B. Plasma(fluid portion of blood)
 Body fluid compartments

Cerebrospinal fluid,
gastrointestinal fluid,
bile, glandular
secretions, respiratory
secretions, and
synovial fluid are in the
transcellular fluid
compartment, which is
estimated as
approximately 1% of
body weight
(approximately 2% of
total body water).
Transport across the cell membrane
Transport across the cell membrane
 Transport across the cell membrane
There are two major types of transport across the membrane.
1. Active transport: It is the biological process of movement of the
molecules against the concentration gradient. Thus, it requires chemical
energy to transport the components from an area of lower concentration to
an area of higher concentration.
2. Passive transport: Passive transport is a natural phenomenon, which does
not require any external energy. In passive transport, an ion or molecule
crosses the membrane and moves down its concentration or electrochemical
gradient.
Down the concentration gradient (from high to low)
Against the concentration gradient ( from low to high)
 Transport across the cell membrane
Where as passive transport is further divided into three main types:
1. Simple diffusion:
(Diffusion is a spontaneous process in which a substance moves from a region
of high concentration to a region of low concentration)
2. Facilitated diffusion:
(This is a type of passive transport in which molecules that cross the cell
membrane move quickly due to the presence of specific transport proteins in
the membrane. Facilitated diffusion occurs only in the direction of a
concentration gradient and does not require metabolic energy
3. Osmosis:
(Osmosis is the process by which water molecules pass through a membrane
from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water
concentration)
 Transport across the cell membrane
Where as active transport is further divided into two main types:
1. Primary active transport also called direct active transport, directly uses
chemical energy (such as from adenosine triphosphate or ATP in case of
cell membrane) to transport all species of solutes across a membrane
against their concentration gradient.
For example:
• Na-k+ pump
1. Secondary active transport it is a kind of transport which uses indirect
energy in form of ATP, mostly movement in cell happens through it.
For example:
• Na-glucose transport
• Na-H exchanger
• Cl-HCO3 exchanger
Transport across the cell membrane
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
• It is a primary active transporter
• It always uses ATP
• Present in all cells
• Throw 3Na+ out of the cell(against the conc
gradient) and 2K+ in to the cell with ATP usage.
• The Na+K+-ATPase pump helps to maintain
osmotic equilibrium and membrane potential in
cells.
Sodium-Potassium Pump
It is a secondary active
Co-transporter
transporter using indirect
energy.
Na move down the gradient
and go in the cell but due to
the charge on it, it always
accompany some other
substance(glucose) to move
in or out of the cell. If
substance moves in same
direction with Na+, it is
called Co-transporter. It is
called Na-glucose
transporter.
Types Of Transporters In Cell Membrane
 Counter transporter
It is a secondary active transport in which two substances move in
the opposite direction with indirect use of energy. Substance move
against the direction of Na+(out of cell)
For example:
Na+-H+ exchanger
 Homeostatic Regulation
The process of adjustment
involving homeostatic regulation
can be done by following
components:
1. A Receptor (which receives
information about a change in the
environment)
2. A Control Center (which receives and
processes information from the
receptor)
3. An Effector (which responds to
signals from the control center by
either opposing and enhancing the
stimulus.
 Feedback Mechanism
The signals sent by the
effector is called feedback
mechanism. It can be either
negative and positive
feedback mechanism.
Negative feedback:
When the effector opposes
the stimulus(such as
dropping temperature) and
reverse the direction of
change(causing the
temperature to rise)
 Feedback Mechanism
Positive feedback mechanism:
When the effector reinforces the stimulus(such as uterine
contraction during child-birth, when trigger the release of the
hormones oxytocin and amplifies the direction of change(causing
even greater contraction and further release of oxytocin)
 Thanks for the
patience served.