Independence and

Khilafat Movement (1919-24)

 A political campaign
launched mainly by
Muslims to influence the
British government and to
protect the Ottoman
Empire during the
aftermath of World War I
 Ali Brothers

 All India Khilafat committee

formed by Ali brothers and other
moderate Muslim nationalists

 In 1920, published the Khilafat

Manifesto, which called upon the
British to protect the caliphate and
for Indian Muslims to unite and
hold the British accountable for this
purpose

Mohammad Ali Jouhar (1878 –1931)

 Gandhi saw in the
movement an
opportunity for
Hindu-Muslim unity

 In 1920, he
suggested a broad
ranging programme
of non-cooperation
till Punjab and
Khilafat wrongs
were addressed
and self-rule
established
 Non-cooperation Movement (1920-22)

 Calcutta (1920) session

of Congress supported
Gandhi’s plan

 Boycott of government
educational institutions,
) law courts, legislatures,
surrender of officially
conferred titles and
honors, refusal to pay
taxes

 Feb 5, 1922: Chauri

Chaura

Swadeshi and Swaraj

 British repression: arrest
and censorship

 5 Feb 1922, Gandhi

called off the movement
owing to violence and
was sentenced to six
years imprisonment
 Government of India act (1919)

 Central legislative council made bicameral parliament – Imperial legislative

assembly ( 140 members, 100 elected) and Council of State ( 60
members, 40 elected). Viceroy’s executive council to have 3 Indian
members.

 Landowning, tax paying, educated Indians (5 million) enfranchised to elect

representatives in provincial councils.

 Diarchy introduced in provinces. They would have ministers to preside over

departments like health, education, public works and agriculture. 70% of
the members of provincial councils were to be elected.

 In 1923, C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed ‘Svarajists Party’ to fight
elections and paralyze government machinery from within. Policy of ‘non-
cooperation from within’.

 In 1923, simultaneous examinations for ICS held in New Delhi and London,
and Indians were admitted to military officer training.
Civil disobedience Movement (1930-33)

 Congress session in
1929,declared‘Swaraj’
(complete independence) as
its objective.

 On 31 Dec 1929, hoisted

the national flag and
issued the declaration of
independence.

 Gandhi launched his civil

disobedience movement
on 12 March 1930.
  Gandhi decided to make
the salt tax the focal point
of non-violent political
protest

 He began his
famous‘dandi/salt
march’with 71
companions, for the
coastal village of Dandi,
Gujarat, some 240 miles
from their starting point in
Sabarmati

Breaking of Salt law at Dandi

 On 6th April he broke
the salt law and
declared that, he
was out to destroy
the curse of the
British government.

 Similar violation of
tax laws spread all
over India with
simultaneous boycott
of British goods.
 British repression and appeasement

 British responded by severe repression and imprisoned

Gandhi and other nationalist leaders.

 British government summoned in London in 1930 the first

Round table conference to discuss the question of
constitutional reform in India following the
recommendations of Simon commission on self-rule.
Demand for An Autonomous State for Muslims

 29 Dec 1930: Muslim

League’s annual session
Iqbal called for an
‘consolidated state in
northwestern India for Indian
Muslims within the body
politic of India.’

 ‘We are 70 million and far

more homogenous than any
other people of India. Indeed
the Muslims in India are the
only people who can fitly be
described as a nation in the
modern sense of the word’.
Muhammad Iqbal ( 1877-1938)
“At this solemn hour in the history of
India, when British and Indian
statesmen are laying the foundations
of a Federal Constitution for that land,
we address this appeal to you, in the
name of our common heritage, on
behalf of our thirty million Muslim
brethren who live in PAKSTAN – by
which we mean the five Northern units
of India, Viz: Punjab, North-West
Frontier Province (Afghan Province),
Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan.” –
Now Now or Never; Are We to Live or
Perish Forever ( Pakistan
declaration)

Choudhary Rahmat Ali (1895-1951)

 Gandhi-Irwin pact (March 1931)

 A settlement in 1931: Congress suspended the civil

disobedience movement, agreed to participate in the
II Round table conference.

 British government recognized and approved

svadeshi movement, withdrew repressive
ordinances, freed political prisoners and removed the
salt tax.
Gandhi in London during Round Table talks
 In 1932 Ramsay McDonald announced ‘Comunal Award’ which
gave separate electorates to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-
Indians and Dalits.

 Gandhi launched a fast-unto-death led to the ‘Poona Pact’ with Dr.

Ambedkar - 24 September 1932, which ensured that 147 seats on
the provincial council and 18% of the central assembly seats to
dalits if they ran for the election by general Hindu electorate.

 Hindu leaders conference resolved that ‘ …henceforth no one

shall be regarded as an untouchable by reason of this birth, and
those who have been so regarded hitherto, will have the same
right to the use of public wells, public schools, public roads and
other public institutions’.
 Government of India Act (1935)

 The act was to create a ‘Federation of India’ which would consist of 11 governors’
provinces ( provinces of British India); the princely states; and a small number of
ICS-run, centrally administered areas called chief commissioner's provinces. –
this never came to fruition.

 Provincial autonomy inaugurated on April 1, 1937 following nation-wide elections.

The franchise increased from seven million to thirty-five million propertied Indians
( six million women and 10 % untouchables).

 Reorganization of provinces - Sindh was separated from Bombay; Bihar and

Orissa were split into separate provinces; Burma became a separate colony;
NWFP was advanced as a governor’s province.

 In six governors’ provinces ( Bengal, Bihar, Madras, U.P, Bombay and Assam) –
two legislative chambers ( a council and an assembly); in other five – unicameral
assembly.

 Separate electorates retained, and elections held in 1937.

 In the elections of 1937 Congress
ministries took office in in 7 governors’
provinces (Bengal, Bihar, C.P,
Madras, NWFP, Orrisa, and UP). In
1938 – Congress ministry won Assam

 Though less than half of 1585 seats

were open to general electorate –
Congress won all of them, and 59 in
separate electorates – 716 members.

 Muslim league -109 seats, not even a

majority of the 482 separate Muslim
seats nationwide.

 Congress candidates won 70% of the

total popular vote.

 “There are only two parties in India –

the British government and the
Congress” - Nehru
 “On every threshold of what little
power and responsibility is given,
the majority community have
always clearly shown that
Hindustan is for Hindus” – Jinnah
( 1937)

 In 1938 Jinnah demanded that

League be recognized as the
sole party for India’s Muslims.

 “ The Congress had killed every

hope of Hindu-Muslim settlement
in the right royal fashion of
Fascism”- Jinnah (Dec 1938)
 Lahore Resolution ( 1940)
‘No constitutional plan would be
workable or acceptable to the
Muslims unless geographical
contiguous units are demarcated
into regions which should be so
constituted with such territorial
readjustments as may be
necessary. That the areas in
which the Muslims are
numerically in majority as in the
North-Western and Eastern
zones of India should be grouped
to constitute independent states
in which the constituent units
shall be autonomous and
sovereign…’
Two Nation Theory
 “The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious
philosophies, social customs and literatures. They neither intermarry
nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different
civilizations” – Jinnah

 “The vast majority of Muslims of India are converts to Islam or are

descendants of converts” – Gandhi

 Gandhi denounced the Lahore resolution as the ‘vivisection of India’,

to which Jinnah responded, “ Where is the central national
government whose authority is being violated? India is held by British
power and that is the hand that holds and gives the impression of a
united India and a unitary government.”
 Jinnah courted British support
and Lord Linlithgow promised
that “no future constitutional
scheme would be adopted
without the previous approval of
Muslim India”.

 ‘’…His Majesty’s Government

could not contemplate transfer
of their present responsibilities
for the peace and welfare of
India to any system of
government whose authority is
directly denied by large and
powerful elements of India’s
national life’’ - Linlithgow

Victor Hope Linlithgow (1887 –1952)

Viceroy – 1936-1943
Quit India movement (1942)
 Quit India Movement (1942)

 “I am convinced that the time

has come for the British and
the Indians to be reconciled to
complete separation from
each other” – Gandhi ( May,
1942).
 In August 1942, Gandhi
launched a call for immediate
independence – “ Leave India
to God. If that is too much,
leave her to anarchy”.
 Congress committee on 8
August passed the ‘Quit India
resolution’.
 ‘Do or Die’

‘I, therefore, want freedom immediately,

this very night, before dawn, if it can be
had… Here is a mantra, a short one, that I
give you. You may imprint it on your hearts
and let every breath of yours give
expression to it. The mantra is: “Do or Die”.
We shall either free India or die in the
attempt; we shall not live to see the
perpetuation of our slavery…” - Gandhi
 British response

 Arrested Gandhi and other

nationalists and resorted to severe
repression, Congress banned

 Gandhi went on a 21-day fast

 British released Gandhi on account

of his failing health in 1944, Gandhi
kept up the resistance, demanding
the complete release of the
Congress leadership

Agha Khan Palace

 Partition of
India  Congress-League breakdown.

 Direct action day – August 16,

1946.

 On Feb 1947 British PM Attlee

announced that His Majesty’s
Government has resolved to
transfer its power by no later
than June 1948 to “responsible
Indian hands”.

 14 August 1947 – Pakistan was

created.

15 August 1947 – India became

independent.

Time magazine – Oct, 1947

Time magazine – June 30, 1947 Time magazine-April 22,
1946