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Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts Essentials – 2nd Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
book
1. Operating System Concept by Abraham Silberschatz, Peter B. galvin, Greg Gange
2. Operating Systems - William Stalling 6th edition
Operating System Concepts Essentials – 2nd Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Definition (Cont.)
 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating
system” is a good appoximation
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel.
 Everything else is either
 Systemr program (ships with the operating system)
 Application program.
Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Operation
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
 Computer-system operation
 When system is fully booted:
 The system waits for some event to occur. The occurrence
of an event is usually signaled by an interrupt from either
the hardware or the software.
 Hardware interrupt: Hardware may trigger an
interrupt at any time by sending a signal to the
CPU, usually by way of the system bus.
 Software interrupt: Software may trigger an
interrupt by executing a special operation called a
system call (also called a monitor call).
 Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
 Hardware interrupted by one of the devices
 Software interrupt (exception or trap):caused either by an
error or a user request
 modern operating systems are interrupt driven. If there
are no processes to execute, no I/O devices to service,
and no users to whom to respond, an operating system
will sit quietly, waiting for something to happen. Events
are almost always signaled by the occurrence of an
interrupt or a trap.
 A trap (or an exception) is a software-generated
interrupt caused either by an error (for example,
division by zero or invalid memory access).
Interrupt handling:
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by
storing registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system
Separate segments of code determine what action should be
taken for each type of interrupt
Storage Structure:
Main memory
 Random access Typically volatile
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
magnetic disk and Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered
with magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular
Storage Structure:
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
Storage-Device Hierarchy
How a Modern Computer Works
A von Neumann architecture
Operating-System Architecture
Single-Processor Systems
Most personal computers and laptops are single-processor systems, with a
single CPU performing all tasks.
Computer-System Architecture
Multi-Processor Systems
Inhigh-performance systems, multiple processors work together to
execute instructions simultaneously, increasing computing power.
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
special task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design:
Multi-chip and multicore
Systems containing all chips
 Chassis containing multiple separate systems
 Figure 1.7 A dual-core design with two cores placed

on the same chip.
Clustered Systems:
Clustered systems connect multiple computers to act as a single, powerful
system, providing fault tolerance and scalability.
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric: one machine is in hot-standby mode while the other is
running the applications. The hot-standby host machine does
nothing but monitor the active server. If that server fails, the hot-
standby host becomes the active server.
 Symmetric clustering In symmetric clustering, two or more hosts
are running applications and are monitoring each other.
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 which divides a program into separate components that run in parallel on
individual computers in the cluster. Parallel clusters allow multiple hosts to
access the same data on shared storage.
 Some have distributed lock managers (DLM) to avoid conflicting operations

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Chapter 1: Introduction

 No universally accepted definition

A von Neumann architecture

Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

 Figure 1.7 A dual-core design with two cores placed

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