THEATRE OF

ANCIENT GREECE
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• Greece is the wellspring
of Western Civilization
• Around 800 BC, the
colonies of Greece started
to assert themselves.
• The major political unit
was the polis or city-state
• These states depended
on control of the sea.

Caryatids-columns at the
Acropolis in Athens
• These city-states were ruled by kings, but after 800 BC
noblemen, fattened up by trade revenues, begin to assert
power.
• Noblemen won control of significant city-states, became
“tyrants”-obtained absolute power in irregular way.
• Major city-states were Athens (or Attica), Sparta, Corinth &
• Thebes.
• Athens grew weary of
tyrants and found a means
of usurping them in 508
BC: Democracy
• Only citizens could vote;
defined as free male’s w/
property.
• Lottery held to appoint
citizens to Council of 500,
which would vote to elect
Assembly to rule and
Court to adjudicate

A bust of Pericles
• The Golden Age of Athens from 508 BC to 404 BC when
they were defeated in the Peloponnesian War
• Incredible flowering of art, architecture and science,
most of it under the leadership of Pericles (495-430 BC)
• Why were the Greeks different than the Egyptians?

The Parthenon
 THEORIES ON THE SUCCESS OF GREECE
• Incredible Climate, bright
and sunny, dry when it
needs to be, wet when it
needs to be. No harsh
winters or blistering
summers
• Good for growing crops and
shepherding herds
• Also good for the growing of
spices. Microclimates allow
for excellent wine.
• Defeated Persians at
Marathon in 490,no major
enemies. Well protected by
land
• Strong sea fleet and strong
trade by sea brings in
wealth.
 HOW DOES THIS HELP THE GREEKS?
• With security, less worrying
about what your enemy is
doing, less focus on preparing
for war.
• Plentiful food, no worry about
where your next meal is
coming from; good meat which
is good for the brain.
• Also, spices to flavor food so
eating is actually an enjoyable
experience.
• Wealth and slaves from sea
trade free up time to think
about other things besides
surviving both physically and
economically.
• This helps develop a
philosophical outlook of
humanism.
 HUMANISM
• Humanism: A doctrine
that the duty of society is
to promote human
welfare.
• The focus is on the
person here & now, not on
the supernatural.
• Pythagoras: “Man is the
measure of all things.”
• Pantheon of Gods
reduced to myth;
anthropomorphic, with
human foibles, driven by
fate and destiny.
 THE ORIGIN OF GREEK THEATRE
• As with the early
societies, religious
ceremonies were the key.
• Of particular interest were
the ceremonies of
Dionysus-god of wine,
fertility and revelry.
• Central to that ceremony
was the dithyramb, a
lengthy hymn sung by a
chorus of fifty.
• The choral leader sang a
story, and the refrain was
answered by the chorus.
• By 600 BC, dithyrambs
included tales of heroic A frieze depicting Dionysus, the
adventure from history god of wine
and myth.
• Dithyrambs became more
popular, particularly the
secular mode.
• They also became more
sophisticated in structure.
• Arion, maybe 1st
playwright, alternated
sung verse with spoken
verse; assigned lines of
dialogue to chorus
members.
• Dithyrambic contests were
held, and prizes were
awarded. Dithyramb dancers and musician;
from a vase dating approx. 550
• Tragedy=tragoidia=goat BC
song (a prize?)
• Thespis is credited as the first choral singer to step out of
the chorus and assume a part.
• He delivered a prologue, was the first to use dialogue that
required him to impersonate a character.
• Maybe a prominent prize winner. Evidence that his method
was successful and that he became a popular traveling
actor
• Word for actor was hypokrite-”answerer

Wagon with musicians, carrying a statue of Dionysus

• Thespis may have been
the first writer of tragedy.
• Dithyrambs evolved into a
more dramatic form for a
hundred years or so.
• The heroic tales of history
and of man’s folly became
influenced by the idea of
dramatic dialogue and
imitating a character.
• Also, the festivals became
more secular and festivals
to Dionysus began to
grow in popularity
• Since dithyrambs were
exclusive to Dionysian
revels, and theatre grew
out of dithyrambs, drama
was also exclusive to
festivals of Dionysus
 EARLY TRAGIC VERSE
• Poets took a radical
departure from
dithyrambs to enact the
tales instead of just
reciting them. It would
put the story in the
present tense
• Only figures of history or
myth were deemed
appropriate subjects.
• From 600 BC to 500BC,
a structure for the script
began to develop.
Laurence Olivier as Oedipus
• The tragedy would start
with the prologos, an
opening scene providing
exposition by character or
characters
• Next is the parados, when
the chorus enters.
• The parados is made up
of three parts:
– Anapests: The poem sung
while the chorus is marching
into the theatre
– Strophe: First stanza sung by
the chorus while moving east
to west
– Antistrophe: Second stanza,
sung while chorus moves west A production of Medea at the
ancient Greek theatre at Epidauros
to east. Usually, a response to
the strophe
• Then the 1st Episode,
interaction between
characters and the plot
develops.
• That is followed by the 1st
choral ode, known as the
stasimon, in which the
chorus comments on the
action. The stasimon is sung
from the chorus’ stationary
position.
• This is followed by alternating
episodes and stasima, 3 to 6
in number, until the
epirrhema, when a character
and the chorus comment on
the current state of affairs.
• The play is ended with the
exodos, when all characters
exit the stage. A scene from Aeschylus’ The
Eumenides, from a Greek vase
 THE CITY DIONYSIA
• In Attica, 4 festivals were held each year to honor Dionysus
• The largest was the City Dionysia, which was held in Athens proper.
• It was held for 5 days in March, when the poets reopened after
winter.
• All the theatre from Ancient Greece that we study comes from this
festival.
• It was a huge affair, shutting down the city. It rivaled the Olympics in
importance and popularity.

A vase depicting the revels of

maenads and satyrs
 BACKGROUND: DIONYSUS
• Son of Zeus, Dionysus was
one of the many Gods who
didn’t reside on Mount
Olympus
• Dionysus roamed the world w/
his entourage, teaching
humans how to make wine. He
was jovial, friendly, handsome,
charming and laid back. He
was very popular
• Entourage included Maenads,
women who danced in a
energetic & suggestive way;
and Satyrs: half-man, half-goat;
leering, bawdy; loved loud
music & drinking.
• Wherever this group went, they
brought good wine, good food, A statue of Dionysus with an
good music and good times. attending satyr
 DIONYSIAN FESTIVALS
• Festivals honoring gods have
been around since humankind
have been worshipping gods.
• Festivals celebrated cycles of
the seasons, victory over an
enemy, bountiful harvest or
plentiful game, or a prayer for
fertility.
• Rituals at festivals used
mimesis to reenact the lives
and events of gods.
• Dionysian festivals were
among the most well-attended.
Since he was the God of Wine-
Scene of a satyr and maenad in
that meant wine, dance and Dionysian revels
general shenanigans
• Especially popular were early
Bacchic Rituals; rural festivals
where celebrants were infused
with spirit of Dionysus. They
lived in an alternate reality
where self-control was
secondary, and celebrants
followed the flow of nature.
• In 600BC, with rise of ‘stoic’
gods, Dionysian festival gained
momentum as antidote to rise
of scientific method.
• Athens adopted festival as
way to allow populace to let
their hair down and not be so
civilized for a few days. A frieze depicting a Bacchic
dancer
 BACK TO THE CITY DIONYSIA
• Over time, it became more
mainstreamed. There was
still rituals, but the wild
orgiastic celebrations
became less and less
• It became a state-
sanctioned event that was
used to promote the wealth
and culture of Athens.
• Businesses were shut down
during the festival and all
free citizens were expected
to attend.
• Dithyrambs, tragedies,
comedies and satyr plays
were performed and in 534
BC, prizes were added for
plays.
• It was a huge religious festival that was the venue for all the Greek tragedies
that are extant.
• It occurred in Athens at the end of March to celebrate the coming of Spring.
• Part of the festival was literary and dramatic competition.
• At first it was just dithyrambs & poetry. Tragedy added in 534 BC, Satyr
plays in 501 BC and Comedy in 487 BC.

An engraving of the agora

(marketplace) of Athens
 Preparations for the Festival
• As it pertains to theatre, preparations began 11 months before.
• Poets “pitched” their ideas to the archon (mayor) of Athens and a
council consisting of one representative each from the ten tribes of
Athens.
• The archon & council chose three poets, who then must each write a
tetralogy for the festival; three tragedies and a satyr play.

A poet teaching a part to an

actor.
• Also assigned for each
poet was a choregus, a
producer.
• The choregus was a
wealthy citizen of some
prominence. It was
considered a great honor
to be chosen a choregus.
• The choregus would pay
for expenses of chorus:
rehearsals costumes and
musicians’ fees. The city
paid the salaries of the
poet and the actors and
provided the awards and
theatre space.
• A stingy choregus could
seriously hurt a poet’s A statue of a successful
chance of winning. choregus
• The poet chose the cast, chorus and musicians. In the early years of the
festivals, most playwrights were also the principal actors.
• By early 400’s, poets did not perform in their own plays, but served as
de-facto directors, teaching the play to actors, chorus and musicians.
• The title assigned to them at this time was Didaskalos (teacher)
• Cast and chorus and poet rehearsed for the the full eleven months up to
festival.

Musicians rehearsing before a festival performance

 The Festival Opens!
• Finally, in March, the festival
opens.
• The day before, there is a
communal feast and sacrifice.
There was also the proagon; a
prelude where each competing
poet would stand on a wooden
platform, accompanied by the
actors, chorus and musicians.
They would be in their “street
clothes (no masks or
costumes).
• The poet would make a brief
speech on the subjects of his
plays, hoping to generate
interest.
• On the evening of the first day would be the “Bringing In”. A totem of
Dionysus was escorted into the city. It was usually a wooden pole with
a mask and robes.
• The totem was carried in a chariot with a mule-shaped prow. The
mule was a favorite animal of Dionysus because it was lusty, knew the
value of leisure and served no real purpose.
• The totem was taken to the theatre where, in a secret ritual, a black
he-goat (tragos) was sacrificed. The goat was seen as a symbol of
tragedy; he was punished for crimes he didn’t understand.

The chariot with the totem of

Dionysus
• Next day was the Procession and was the first actual day of
performances.
• There was a parade with the archon leading, followed by the choregoi
dressed in robes of scarlet and purple with gold embroidery.
• Next were young men leading a bull for sacrifice and representatives from
other city-states, carrying erect phalli as a sign of respect to Dionysus.

Taking the bull

to be sacrificed
• Along the way, the procession
stopped at several altars to
listen to dithyrambs.
• The dithyrambs honored
Dionysus, but also there were
vulgar songs and shouts to
chase off the enemies of life.
• By mid-afternoon there was a
sacrifice followed by more
dithyrambs.
• The day was capped off by a
feast on beef from the sacrifice
washed down with much wine .
• In the evening, young men lit
torches and wandered the city,
singing and dancing to the
Young men on the second night
accompaniment of reed-pipes of the festival
and harps.
 Day Three: The Plays Begin
• Each poet was assigned a
day to present his plays.
• The performances started
at daybreak with sacrifices
and libations.
• Awards were given for
those who helped with the
festival. During the
Peloponnesian War, fallen
soldiers were honored.
• The tragedies were
presented in the morning.
Then after a leisurely
lunch, was the satyr play
and then either a comedy
(by another poet) or more A mosaic showing chorus
members readying for a
dithyrambs. performance
• There were new plays, but also revivals and revisions of
earlier, popular plays.
• Capacity of the theatre was 15,000 and there was never
less than 10,000 in the audience at any given
performance.
• During the performance, audience members dined on
sweetmeats and drank wine. They would come and go at
will and were vociferous in their pleasure or displeasure
with the actors and chorus.
• Also in the audience were
the archon and
representatives of the ten
tribes who were
adjudicators of the
competition.
• The adjudicators were
important men who had
some knowledge of theatre.
• Women were not allowed to
adjudicate or even perform.
There was evidence that
they were allowed to attend,
albeit in segregated
sections.
• After the last play, the judges would confer and the victor
would be announced. Awards were given for acting,
dithyrambs and comedy.
• The big one was tragedy, in which the prize was shared by
the choregus and the poet.
• The winning choregus would receive a tripod, which he
would immediately dedicate to Dionysus.
• The poet would be crowned with a crown of ivy and
celebrated in a victory procession.

A frieze depicting actors

celebrating after a performance
• The next day there was
an open assembly to
review the festival.
• Complaints were
addressed, advice was
given, and those who
worked on the festival
were honored.
• There was one more
simple festival honoring
Zeus and then everybody
went home to rest.
• The winning choregus
often erected a monument
to his victory. After a
month, the archon would
A monument erected by a
meet to select the next winning choregus
three plays and the
process would begin all
over again.
 THE GREAT TRAGEDIANS
• Evidence indicates that
being a dramatic poet was
not a full-time job.
However, a talented writer
could be paid a handsome
salary and substantial
prize money.
• The other big advantage
was that the most
honored poets would have
their scripts copied and
archived. That is how we
are able to study the great
poets of 5th century BC.
The goddess Athena
• Even though the City Dionysia had been going for several decades, it
was in the 5th century that drama began to be appreciated and
treasured.
• There were talented and influential poets in the 6th century BC, such as
Choerilus, Pratinas and Phrynicus, but none of their work has survived.
• In the 5th century, there were three poets in particular who were
considered the benchmark of Greek Tragedy: Aeschylus, Sophocles
and Euripides.
 AESCHYLUS (525-456 BC)
• Of the writers whose work
still exist, he was the first
to consider drama as a
form separate from
dancing, singing and
storytelling.
• He is the father of Greek
drama and therefore of
Western drama.
• He was an excellent poet.
He perfected the structure
of dramatic verse that
influenced writers who
followed him.
• Before Aeschylus, there was one actor (protagonist) who
interacted with the chorus.
• Aeschylus introduced the 2nd actor (antagonist or
deuteragonist) which allowed for true dramatic dialogue.
• He also reduced the chorus from 50 to the more
manageable and affordable size of twelve.
• He was master of the tetralogy-able to weave a single
dramatic theme skillfully through all four plays.

A production showing the

Eumenides
The Persians, written in 472 BC, is the oldest surviving
western play
• Aeschylus was also one of the first to use costuming and
stage machinery.
• He was one of the last poets to act in his own plays.
• He is believed to have written over ninety plays. We know
the titles of 79 of them, but only seven have survived.
• He is most renown for his trilogy The Oresteia:
Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, & The Eumenides.
• The Oresteia is the only surviving Greek trilogy.

A production of The Libation

Bearers
• The Eumenides (furies)
were so realistic and
frightening at the time that it
was said that upon their
entry, they caused pregnant
women to miscarry.
• After Aeschylus, the plays
of the festival began to
move away from themes of
Dionysus and towards more
secular, humanistic motifs.
• He first competed in the
festival in 499 BC. He won
Orestes pursued by the furies
for the first time in 484 BC.
He went on to win 13 times.
 SOPHOCLES (496-406 BC)
• Approximately 30 years
younger than Aeschylus,
they competed in many of
the same festivals.
• Obviously influenced by
Aeschylus, but also
introduced many
innovations to the art of
tragedy.
• Superb poet with tightly
crafted plots and skillful
use of exposition.
• He focus on the
exploration of character
and the focused more on
the individual rather than
society as a whole. Bust of Sophocles
• Sophocles was also a part
of Athenian public life.
• As a boy, he participated in
public celebrations of Greek
victories over the Persians.
• As an adult, he was a
prominent citizen of Athens,
holding several political
offices, including an office in
charge of military affairs.
• He was also devoutly
religious. He is credited with
introducing the cult of the
healing god Asclepius into
Athens.
Asclepius, the god of healing
• Sophocles won his first festival prize at 28, beating out
Aeschylus. He went on to win the tragedy prize 24 times and
never finished below 2nd.
• He wrote over 120 plays, 7 of which are extant.
• His three most renown works are Oedipus the King, Oedipus at
Colonus and Antigone. Collectively, these are known as the
Theban Plays and are usually grouped as a trilogy even though
they were originally parts of separate trilogies

A modern production of
Antigone
• Sophocles was an Athenian
celebrity, and he was also a
patriot.
• He was the son of a wealthy
factory owner and lived his
whole life in Athens.
• He served as an
ambassador a priest, and a
general; and was renowned
for good nature
• He received invitations to
live at the courts of foreign
kings but turned them all
down.
• He died at the age of ninety,
just two years before his
beloved Athens was
defeated by Sparta in the
Peloponnesian War.
A statue of Sophocles towards
the end of his life
 Some Sophoclean Innovations
• Introduced the third actor
(triagonist) -increasing
opportunities for dramatic
tension and action.
• Raised number of chorus from
12 to 15, where it stayed.
• Told stories as single dramas
instead of as one section of a
trilogy. This allowed more action
building to a swifter resolution to
the plot.
• Also credited with realistic
innovations in scene painting.
• Sophocles was so successful,
that even the venerable A production of Sophocles’
Aeschylus adopted some of his Electra at the ancient Greek
ideas, particularly the third actor theatre at Epidauros
and increased chorus size.
 EURIPIDES (480-406 BC)
• 16-18 years younger than
Sophocles and 50 years
younger than Aeschylus.
• He is considered the most
modern of the Greek
tragedians.
• Reasons for this are his
sympathetic portrayal of
women, his realistic
dialogue and plots, mixing
of comedy and tragedy
(melodrama) and his
skeptical treatment of the
Gods.
• Euripides was an iconoclast. He argued that chance rules
the world, not the gods.
• He also criticized deities who were often portrayed as petty
and venal.
• He was more interested in theme than in plotting, which
made the actions of his characters not readily apparent.
• For this reason, he was often criticized for a number of
supposed flaws:

A fragment of a speech from

a lost play by Euripides
• Weak Plotting
• Sensational Subject
Matter
• Treating the gods as
fallible and sometimes
base.
• He also was criticized for
the realistic behavior of
his characters, which was
considered inappropriate
for comedy.
• Perhaps the biggest
criticism he received was
for his diminishing the role A production of Euripides’ The
of the chorus Bacchae at the ancient Greek
theatre at Epidauros
 MINI-SYNOPSIS: MEDEA
• Medea, A sorceress, helps Jason steal the
Golden Fleece and flees her homeland with him.
• In Corinth, Jason dumps Medea for the king’s
daughter.
• In revenge, Medea creates a poisoned cloak for
the daughter which causes a horrible death.
• The daughter and the king are killed by this cloak.
• Medea then kills her children, so they will not
suffer for her crimes.
• She then takes their bodies away in a fiery chariot
pulled by dragons, taunting her grieving ex-
husband.
• He won the City Dionysia
only five times. He wrote
92 plays, 18 of which are
extant.
• He is the authour of the
only surviving satyr play,
Cyclops (date unknown)
• The comic poet
Aristophanes often
parodied and ridiculed
Euripides’ dramatic
methods.
• The son of a wealthy
citizen, he was moody Medea About to Kill her
and reclusive. Children by Eugene Delacroix,
1838
• It is surmised that he had
marital problems and
disliked women which led
him to create such
passionate, strong-willed
women characters, such
as Medea, Phaedra and
Parsiphae..
• Euripides fame grew
after his death. He was
much admired by the
Romans and when
rediscovered during the
Italian Renaissance, was
the most admired of the
big three Greek A production of Medea by the
playwrights. Greek National Theatre
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS-INTRODUCTION
• Aristotle was the first great dramatic critic of Western Theatre
• Poetics is probably the single most important dramatic criticism we have
in Western Civilization.
• It was not an essay, but is laid out as a series of notes, possibly for a
lecture or series of lectures.
• It was not meant to be a set of rules defining tragedy, but an observation
of the elements shared by the great tragedies.
 BACKGROUND: ARISTOTLE’S LIFE
• Born in Northern Greece
some 20-25 years after the
death of Sophocles.
• His father was a doctor and
Aristotle became interested
in the sciences.
• He studied with Plato at his
Academy and stayed there
for 20 years.
• He was also a tutor to
Alexander the Great for
three years.
 BACKGROUND: ARISTOTLE’S LIFE
• He was one of the first
philosophers to champion the
Scientific Method and helped
popularize it.
• It was a method he applied to
theatre criticism in The
Poetics.
• The Poetics is ostensibly a
treatise on literature. It has
sections on epic poetry and
comedy, but tragedy takes up
most of the space.
• Aristotle wrote The Poetics
about 100 years after the
Golden Age.
 BACK TO POETICS
• It may have been written as a
response to Plato’s Republic.
Plato argued that tragedy
was dangerous to society
because it promoted
irrationality. Actors were not
to be trusted because they
could use their powers of
mimicry to harm society.
• Aristotle argued that tragedy
is positive. It purges harmful
emotions and acts as a
restorative of the soul.
• Aristotle considered
Sophocles’ Oedipus the King
as the hallmark of Greek
tragedy and it is this play he
based his observations on.
 Aristotle’s Definition
• “Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is
serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in
language embellished with each kind of artistic
ornament, the several kinds being found in separate
parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative;
with incidents arousing pity and fear, wherewith to
accomplish its katharsis of such emotions”

• translation by S. H. Butcher
 DEFINITIONS OF TRAGEDY?
• Aristotle’s language is sometimes ambiguous, so there are
many interpretations of his definition of tragedy.
• Basically, he calls it an imitation of an action (mimesis), that is
serious and important, and is presented on stage instead of
recounted by a narrator.
• If done well, it produces emotions of pity and fear, and there
is a katharsis of theses emotions.
• Whether katharsis means “purgation” or “purification” is open
to endless debate.
• According to Aristotle, there are six elements of
drama, which he ranked in order of priority:
1. PLOT-The arrangement of dramatic incidents
2. CHARACTERS-The people represented in the play
3. THOUGHT OR THEME-The ideas explored
4. LANGUAGE-The dialogue and poetry
5. MUSIC
6. SPECTACLE
 1. PLOT
• Defined as the arrangement
of incidences presented in a
cause-and-effect chain of
action.
• Aristotle had several criteria
that defined a good plot:
• Must have a beginning,
middle and end.
• Must have a triangle of
exposition: rising action,
climax and resolution.
• The beginning of the play
starts very close to the
climax. A skilled poet will be
able to do this and use
exposition to peel layers way,
like an onion, to create
suspense.
• The plot must follow the
unities of time, place, and
action.
• Should adhere to myth and
history as source material.
• Outside circumstances are
frowned upon.
• Should be realistic, but also
“larger than life”
• Must be of a certain
magnitude, both in length
and seriousness.
• Violent action is handled
offstage.
• Defined two types of plots:
simple and complex.
• Both types of plots deal
with reversal of fortune
and a downfall. But in
simple comedy, there is
only the change in
fortune (catastrophe) with
no scene of recognition.
• In a complex tragedy,
peripatea (reversal of
intention) leads to the
climax (scene of
maximum suspense),
which leads to the
anagnorisis (recognition),
which leads to the
catastrophe.
Source: Barbara McManus
 2. CHARACTERS
• Characters should support
the plot, which means that
personal motivations will be
intertwined with the cause-
and-effect chain of action.
• The main character is called
the protagonist, and should
be wealthy and renowned, so
his fall from grace should be
much more dramatic,
instigating pity and fear from
the audience.Reversal comes
not from moral weakness, but
from a frailty of character
such as pride (hubris).
• Aristotle called this hamartis
(the fatal flaw).
• In the ideal tragedy, the
protagonist will bring about
his own downfall, mainly
because he doesn’t have all
the facts.
• Peripatea happens because
self-destructive actions taken
in blindness lead to events
that are the opposite of what
the protagonist desires.
• This leads to the anagnorisis,
the lesson learned; essential
knowledge that was
previously lacking.
• Characters in tragedy should have the following qualities:
– “Good or fine”: possessing moral values relative to class. Even women
and slave characters can have these qualities.
– “Fitness of character”: true to type. eg, valour is fit for a warrior but not a
woman.
– ”True to Life”: self explanatory
– “Consistency”: true to self, personality and motivations should be
consistent through the play
– “Necessary or probable”: should be logically constructed according to
plot (no bikers in a nuclear physics lab).
– “True to life but more beautiful”: idealized, ennobled, larger than life.
Like real life, only better.
 3. THOUGHT or THEME
• How speech and dialogue should reveal character
and a common thread-what we call theme-of the
play. What the show is about, essentially.
 4. LANGUAGE
• Expression of
meaning in verse,
which is appropriate to
the plot and the
character.
• Aristotle particularly
liked Metaphors
 5. MUSIC
• Aristotle particularly
addresses the chorus.
The song should be
melodious, and the
choral odes should not
be mere intermissions
but should contribute
to the unity of the plot.
 6 SPECTACLE
• This depends more on the art of the stage machinist
than the poet. It should be used to arouse pity and
fear.
• Those who rely heavily on spectacle “create a sense
not of the terrible, but only of the monstrous.”
• The end result is
katharsis, a purgation
or cleansing.
• The audience
identifies with the pain
and suffering of the
protagonist and feels
empathy with the
character.
• Applies fate of
character to oneself,
feels pity and fear.
• It is a healthy release
of emotions.
 THE SATYR PLAY
• Satyr plays were the fourth
part of the festival
tetralogy, written by the
same poet.
• A satyr play follows the
same theme and dramatic
structure of the preceding
tragedies, but with a much
lighter mood.
• The satyr play followed the
One, two, or three actor
convention-depending on
which year they were first
performed-and there was a
chorus; dressed as satyrs,
usually with large erect
phalluses. Plate showing a member of a
satyr chorus
• The play satirized heroes
of myth and history,
usually the myth covered
in the preceding tragedies.
• The play was not always
connected to the
tragedies, but they were
always a burlesque with
singing, dancing and
plenty of bawdy language
• The leader of the chorus
was always Silenus, the
mythical father of the
satyrs.
• There is only one complete
satyr play extant: Cyclops
by Euripides. So we know
almost nothing about
Silenus and Dionysus
them.
 SYNOPSIS: CYCLOPS
• Based on an episode from Homer’s The Odyssey.
• Odysseus shipwrecks on the isle of Etna, and
encounters the Cyclops Polyphemus and Silenus.
• He drinks wine with them. Polyphemus criticizes
Odysseus for going to war over a woman.
• During a drunken festival, Polyphemus goes into
his cave with Silenus and passes out.
• Odysseus sneaks in and blinds the Cyclops.
• A celebration of revenge is held, and Odysseus
sails away from Etna.
 THE ORIGINS OF OLD COMEDY
• “Old comedy” is defined
as the period of Greek
comedy from
approximately 500-400
BC
• It is characterized by
satirization of current
events and contemporary
figures.
• After the defeat of Athens
in the Peloponnesian War,
“Middle Comedy” took
precedence, which was
more personal and less
political. A statuette of an Old Comedy
character
• Comedy comes from Komoidea´ which means kômos song.
A kômos was an informal rural revel.
• A kômos festival had processions, phallic rites of fertility and
lots of improvised banter between performers and audience.
• Another influence was the popularity of Greek mimes which
supposedly originated in the town of Megara, 25 mi. north of
Athens.

A kômos dance during the

first night of the City Dionysia
• Mimes in this sense were akin to vaudeville comedians, They
knew some stunts, could sing and dance and excelled at
mimicry of important contemporary figures.
• So it came to be that around the time tragedy was evolving, a
poet (or maybe a number of them) got the bright idea to marry
the structure of tragedy to the satire and bawdiness of the
kômos and the mimes.

A vase depicting a dance of

Grecian mimes
• Aristotle credits
Epicharmus of Syracuse
for taking the first steps of
writing comedy in dramatic
form around 500 BC.
• Comedy wormed its way
into the City Dionysia as a
sort of companion piece to
the afternoon satyr play.
Comedic poets wrote only
one play for the festival (as
opposed to the four plays
a tragic poet had to write).
• Comedy was officially
sanctioned, financed and
awarded prizes in 487 BC

A small Old Comedy figurine

 THE PLAYWRIGHTS
• Some names: Chionides who
was said to have won the first
prize for comedy; Magnes, who
won 11 times; Cratinus, said to
be the first truly outstanding
comedian, and Eupolis, known
for his witty satire and a chief
rival of the man mentioned
below.
• The only comedies that have
survived from this period are all
by one man: Aristophanes. We
have no real idea how closely
he adhered to conventions of
his day, but any talk of Old
Comedy must come from
Bust of Aristophanes
Aristophanic comedies.
 BACKGROUND: ARISTOPHANES &
THE WAR
• Aristophanes: 448-380 BC.
Son of a wealthy
conservative Athenian, he
lived a life of privilege.
• He was very active on the
party scene of Athens. It
was said he could outtalk
you over the table and out
drink you under.
• He was a loyal to Athenian
ideals, which he saw as
being undermined by the
Peloponnesian War.
• The Peloponnesian War
lasted off and on from 432
to 405 BC. It was Athens’
attempt at empire-building.
• Athens bullied neighboring
city-states into joining the
Delian League, an alliance
formed for mutual defense.
The city-states were
expected to pay a large
yearly sum for the privilege
of being in the Delian
League.
• Opposing this arrangement
were the two major city-
states of Sparta and
Corinth. Eventually, under
a series of pretexts, war
broke out between Athens Hoplites marching off to war
and Sparta.
• The war polarized the citizens of Athens and there was a
power struggle over leadership of the assembly. The hawks
won out and Athens set out on a series of disastrous military
adventures.
• A number of expensive expeditions were launched against
Sparta and they all ended in failure. Athens lost more than
one naval armada and complete army.

Athenian shipbuilders
constructing warships
• Aristophanes watched the
wealth and social ideals of
Athens deteriorate over
27 years of warfare.
• He fought back with his
pen. He had a knack for
scathing satire and witty
dialogue. He also was
adept at bawdy wit which
he used to great effect,
particularly in Lysistrata.
• After 27 years, the end
came swiftly. Sparta
overpowered Athens, set
up a dictatorship and
imposed crippling
sanctions.
Statue of Leonidas, king of
Sparta, after the defeat of Athens
• The Golden Age was
over. After the fall, both
tragedy and comedy
declined in quality and
importance
• Tragedy disappeared for
centuries. Aristophanes
continued to write
comedy for another 25
years, but they lacked the
satirical bite of his earlier
works.
• Aristophanes wrote more
than 40 plays, 11 of
which are extant. Major
works included The Birds,
The Frogs and The
Clouds. Headless statue of Athena
 CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD COMEDY
• Old Comedy relies heavily on satire of issues of
the period. Comedy always needs a target and
this was certainly true of Old Comedy.
• Old Comedy used fantastical and fanciful
characters to underline the satire. The chorus
was made up of fantastical creatures.
• The theme and plot revolved around a “happy idea” (comic
premise). The happy idea was rather far-fetched,such as
using sex to end a war in Lysistrata.
• Another example: The Birds. Two people discouraged by
real life go to Cloud Cuckooland to observe Bird society.
They end up drawing ridiculous parallels between human
society and bird society.

Complete set of terracotta

comedians
• Some of the most beautiful lyrics coupled with some of the
most obscene passages in Greek literature.
• One important difference comedy had from tragedy was its
deviance from Aristotelean elements: They did not take
place over a short time span, they had several locales and
several characters as well.
• Also, the chorus was comprised of 24 members.

1940s production of The Frogs

by the Yale Repertory Theatre,
staged in a swimming pool.
 THE STRUCTURE OF OLD COMEDY
• Very simple structure.
Central to the play was
the “happy idea”. There
was no real plot.
• The language was not
very PC. Bawdy and lewd,
with numerous references
to sex, eating, drinking
and leisure.
• The play starts with the
Prologue, where the
actors puts forth the
happy idea. Then the
chorus enters and there is
an agon, a debate where
the chorus debates the
merit of the happy idea
and what to do about it,
• Then follows the first parabasis, a chorale ode in which the
audience is addressed directly. It acted as a dividing line
between the two halves of the comedy and in it, some social
or political issue was discussed, and a course of action was
advocated.
• The parabasis was also used to promote the author of the
play.
• Prominent persons, who sat in the first row were often targets
of the chorus.
• The parabasis was similar to stand-up comedy of today.

Black vase depicting a ctypical

comic chorus
• Another element of the
parabasis was the kordax,
a communal dance that
was “lascivious, ignoble
and obscene” and that “no
respectable citizen would
be caught participating
without a mask.”
• The 2nd half of the play
was a series of sketches
loosely based on the
happy idea.
• The final scene (kômos)
concludes with the
characters reconciled and
their exit to a feast or
revels.
• These features of comic
structure are sometimes A depiction of a comic
rearranged, but are almost performance
always present
 SYNOPSIS OF LYSISTRATA
• Premiere: City Dionysia, Spring 411
Scene: gateway to Athenian Acropolis
• Prologue: Lysistrata calls an assembly; women of Athens,
Sparta, Thebes, Corinth arrive
• Plan & oath: abstinence and occupation of the palace
• Entry songs (254-386): Chorus of Old men attack; chorus
of old women fight back
• Episode 1: Magistrate orders women to leave; Magistrate
and Lysistrata debate
• Parabasis (614-705): Tyranny! Family! (polis vs. oikos)
• Episode 2: Lysistrata stops deserters
• Choral songs (781-828): a misogynist! a misanthrope!
• Episode 3: Myrrhine tempts her husband
• Duet (954-979): Rod's lament
• Episode 4: Spartan herald's report
• Choruses call a truce
• Choral song (1043-1071): hopes for peace
• Episode 5: Athenian and Spartan diplomats,
Lysistrata argues for Reconciliation
• Choral song (1189-1215): let's party!
• Episode 6 (kômos ): All celebrate peace
• Exit hymn to Athena
 THEATRE ARCHITECTURE
• Greek theatres in the 5th
century BC were still largely
temporary structures erected
for festivals.
• They were placed on
hillsides, which provided a
natural seating area for the
audience, and excellent
acoustics.
• Originally, the audience sat or
stood on the hillside to watch
dithyrambs. It was out of
these temporary spaces that
permanent theatres were built
• As far as Athens and the City Dionysis are concerned, the principal
venue was the Theatre of Dionysus, which was built into the hillside
of the Acropolis. Originally the audience stood or sat on the slope
and watched performances in a stamped out circular area
• Sometime in the 6th century BC, terraces were dug out of hillsides
to form a crude form of seating
• We are not sure exactly when it was constructed, but we do know it
was around for most-if not all- of the era of Aeschylus, Sophocles
and Euripides.
• We also know that it was renovated, probably around 440 BC by
Pericles, when he built an adjoining music hall (Odieon).
 THE THREE SECTIONS OF THE
GREEK THEATRE
• The Orchestra: The “Dancing Place”, the circular
area in front of the Audience
• The Skene: The stagehouse.
• The Audience: Known as the theatron (viewing-
place)
 THE ORCHESTRA
• In the Theatre of Dionysis
it was a large circle,
believed to have a
diameter of 66’
• Associated with the
orchestra was a thymele,
an altar. It may have
been dead center, or
closer to the skene.
• The thymele was used for
sacrifices during the City
Dionysia, but it may have
also been part of the play.
This is open to debate.
• It was probably used for a
majority of the action in
performances.
 THE SKENE
• It was thought to be a pre-
fab wooden structure
erected for the festival,
behind the orchestra.
• It was believed to be a
“tiring house” at first, a
place for dressing rooms
and prop storage, as well as
serving as a rudimentary
backdrop.
• Between the skene and the
audience were the parados,
which served as the
entrance and exit for the
chorus.
• By the mid-fifth century BC, as tragedies became more
sophisticated, there was a greater need for some type of
scenic representation, particularly the palatial background
that was essential to the conventions of tragedy.
• First extant play requiring scenery was The Oresteia by
Aeschylus (458 BC).
• This led to a number of developments
• The most significant innovation was probably the paraskenia,
Symmetrical wings that extended off each end of the skene. They
housed stage machinery and added additional storage and entrances.
• Extra entrances built into the skene, possibly three symmetrical
doorways.
• Adding a second story with a balcony.
• Also, may have been a low platform in front of skene, with steps leading
down to orchestra
 THE THEATRON
• In the Theatre of Dionysus, the acoustics are said to be excellent, and has a
beautiful view of the Mediterranean Sea.
• The theatre was estimated to have held 15,000 to 17,000.
• Wooden benches were added in the 5th century to provide some degree of
comfort.
• The performances were so popular that tickets were sold in the 5th century
BC.
• The theatron was believed
to be segregated
according to the ten tribes
of Athens, women also
seperated and slaves may
have been allowed as
well.
• Tickets were not for
individual seats but were
tribal sections.
• Ushers patrolled the
aisles, checking to make
sure patrons were in the
proper sections. They
kept order and expelled
unruly audience
members. Violence was
punishable by death.
• Tickets were good for the entire day, instead of just one
show, so there was plenty of coming and going.
• Pericles reserved a block of tickets (we believe about 400)
that were given to the poor.
• The front row was the proedria. It was reserved for
Dionysian priests and important personages. During the
Peloponnesian War, families of fallen heroes would be
seated here as well.
 SCENIC ELEMENTS
• As with the stage itself, we have very little evidence concerning Greek
scenery-only secondhand accounts
• Aristotle credits Sophocles as the first to institute advances in
scenography.
• Sophocles is said to have added scenery pieces to help establish a locale.
• Probably not an attempt to create truly illusionistic scenery, but rather a
way to use some pieces to help reinforce the idea of place.
• Also, furniture was used (minimally) to help establish locale.
• The skene and paraskenia became more sophisticated. The number of
entrances were increased to three and a balcony added to facilitate
extra playing areas and entrances.
• Even with the Aristotelean unity of place, some tragedies did have
scene changes in them, particularly in the latter years of the Golden
Age.
• Most comedies had some sort of locale change, so how were these
accomplished?
• There are a number of theories, any one of which
could be true.
– Clues to scene changes found in the text.
– “Traveling” around the orchestra to denote moving from
place to place.
– Actors and chorus would exit and re-enter
– The use of stage machinery and backgrounds
 STAGE MACHINERY
• One thing we do know
that is from the time of
Sophocles onward, stage
machinery were used and
were quite popular with
audience and poets alike.
• Two of the most common
machines were pinakes
and periaktoi.
• Two other machines used
were the ekkyklema and
the mechane
• A pinake was a painted piece of fabric attached to a
wooden frame (sound familiar?)
• They were believed to be attached to the front of the
skene and represented scenes other than a palace.
Possibly there were stock sets of them, representing
tragedy, comedy and satyr plays.
• A set of pinakes then could be easily employed for the
appropriate play. When not used, they were tucked away
in the skene and/or paraskenia.
• Periaktoi are large
pivoting triangles that
have a scene painted on
each side.
• When one side faces the
audience, the other two
were hidden from sight.
• Periaktoi were usually
used in sets, either
flanking entrances or used
to make a continous
scene across part of the
skene.
• It was a very clever idea
and they proved to be
very popular with
audiences.
Some modern examples of
periaktoi
• The ekkyklema was a
wagon that was rolled out
from an entrance.
• Since violence onstage
was frowned upon and in
some scripts, the body of
the protagonist needed to
be revealed in a tableau,
the ekkyklema was an
ideal solution.
• It was probably a slab
attached to some sort of
dumb casters, set on a
track and pushed out with
a stick or moved by a
pulley.
• It’s a scenic device that is
still used today.
• Our final stage machine was the
mechane (alternate spelling-
machina).
• It was a large crane, either hidden
behind the skene or attached to
one of the paraskenia and used to
hoist characters and set pieces
onto the stage.
• It was used to bring in gods or
elevate items such as Medea’s
chariot.
• Lesser playwrights used machina
to bring a major God on to tie up
all the loose ends, hence the term
deus ex machina.
• Comedians used them to mock
tragedy and human pretensions.
• They were a big thrill for
audiences
 THE ACTORS
• Before the Golden Age, the
actor and the poet were
often one in the same.
There was only one actor
who interacted with the
chorus.
• Aeschylus introduced the
2nd actor. Sophocles added
the 3rd actor and stepped
behind the scenes, to
become the didaskalos of
the entire production. He
was probably more of a
dramaturge than a director.
• The 3-actor rule held pretty
true throughout the era,
although supernumeraries
were possibly used for non-
speaking roles.
• Oedipus at Colonus, for
example, could only work
with three actors if
different actors played the
lead in sucessive scenes.
• In some comedies, there
needed to be as many as
four or even five actors if
there was to be no
juggling of parts.
• To be honest, we’re just
not sure if parts were
switched. One of the
advantages of wearing a
mask however, was that it
would make switching
parts easier.
• Acting became a prize at
the City Dionysia in 449
BC.
• Actors were classified as
follows:
– Protagonist: 1st Actor; the
lead. Oedipus and Medea.
– Deuteragonist: 2nd Actor;
plays a number of roles, but
also served as the
counterpoint to the
protagonist, what today we
would call the antagonist.
– Triagonist: 3rd Actor; played
messengers, oracles, etc.
Helped move the plot along.
 ACTING IN THE CITY DIONYSIA
• Actors in Athens were probably semi-professional. They couldn’t
make a full living as performers since they only worked during the
festival.
• A pool of actors was selected by the Archon when the plays for the
festival were chosen.
• Actors had to “pay their dues”, starting out at as a triagonist and
eventually moving up to protagonist if they were good enough.
• Only free Athenian males could become actors.
• The protagonist for each poet was chosen by lot to insure fairness.
• The poet and protagonist chose the other actors for the production.
Only the protagonist was eligible for a prize.
• Tragic actors were chosen for all three plays and the satyr plays.
• Comic actors were chosen separately.
• Actors had 11 months to rehearse and only one performance. They
rehearsed the entire time (and no, they didn’t call it “play practice”).
 STYLES OF ACTING
• All actors, comic & tragic,
wore masks, so facial
expressions were of no
importance.
• Tragic actors were judged
almost solely on vocal
quality.
• They needed to have a
pleasing tone, ability to be
heard, and ability to
convey mood and
character.
• They had to master 3
kinds of dialogue: speech,
recitative, and song.
Closer in relation to an
opera singer than modern
idea of an actor.
• The vocal style was more
declamatory than
naturalistic. However, the
best-trained actors could
achieve vocal excellence.
Lesser actors apparently
ranted and roared.
• Comic actors had to master
physical elements as well
as vocal concerns. They
had to perfect broad comic
gestures and movements.
• Best conjecture we have is
that even thought the style
was exaggerated, they were
grounded in realism so they
would be recognizable to
the audience.
 THE CHORUS
• The chorus is probably the most unfamiliar element for
today’s audiences. They differed greatly from the
musical and operatic choruses of today.
• Choruses were of supreme importance to the dithyrambs
and tragedies of the early 5th century.
• But when Aeschylus slashed the chorus from fifty to
twelve and added the 2nd character, the chorus started
to diminish in importance.
• In the plays of Aeschylus, chorus was given half the lines.
In The Suppliants even, the chorus was the protagonist.
• When Sophocles introduced a 3rd actor, the chorus was
needed even less for plot and character.
• By the time of Euripides, the chorus had the barest
connection to the play and a minimal number of lines.
• Even in their barest incarnation, they served six important
functions.
1. The chorus is a character in the play, giving advice,
asking questions and even partaking in the action of
the play.
2. The chorus set up an ethical framework against which
the action can be judged.
3. Acts as an ideal spectator, reacting to events and
characters as the dramatist might hope the audience
would.
4. The chorus sets the mood of the play to heighten
dramatic effects.
5. It adds song, dance and spectacle, thus contributing to
the theatricality of the event.
6. The choral passages add a rhythmical function,
creating intervals during which the audience can reflect
upon what has happened and what is to come.
• The chorus would enter from the stage right parados in three blocks of
five, chanting while entering, with the choral leader in front. They would
usually stay onstage for the entire play, in the orchestra.
• Choral leaders for the City Dionysia were chosen by the archons. The
choral leader chose the chorus at the same time actors were chosen
and were used in all 3 tragedies and the satyr play. They were approved
by the choregus and poet.
• They rehearsed vigorously for the 11 months up to the performance.
• Chorus members were not professionals, but rather
talented amateurs. They had to follow a strict diet, follow a
training regimen and be not only have good voices, but
also have skills at dancing and movement. It must have
been prestigous to be part of a chorus to endure all that
without pay.
• Originally, the poet would oversee choral rehearsals, but
as the festival became more sophisticated, the city hired a
trainer-a chorodidaskalos- a choreographer to oversee the
training of all choruses.
• Choruses would change
character from play to play.
They could be old men in
the 1st play, young women
in the 2nd play, furies in the
3rd and then satyrs in the
satyr play.
• Comic choruses were
fantastical costumes and
had hideous masks. They
also had to have comic and
improvisational skills
because of their interaction
with the audience.
• Choral lines had to be
spoken or sung in unison,
however, there may have
been individual lines
assigned to chorus
members.
 MUSIC & DANCE
• Integral to 5th century BC
was music:
accompaniment for choral
odes and underscoring of
dialogue.
• The major instrument was
a single reed double-flute
called an aulos, with the
musician preceeding the
chorus in the parados.
• Actors sometime
accompanied themselves
on lyres.
• We have no real idea what
Greek music sounded like,
but it is believed to be
closely related to Middle
Eastern music Ancient Greek musician
• Greeks held that
music had “ethical
qualities”, which
meant that they
associated different
types of music with
particular emotions
and ideas.
• They adhered to the
notion of modes of
music; different
tonalities and
intervals to
underscore particular
emotions and ideas.
An aulos
• Basically, there were
three types of dance
associated with
choruses of Greek
Theatre.
• In tragedy, there was
the emmeleia, used as
an expression of mood
and character.
• It was characterized by
graceful movements,
and ranging from stately
procession to energetic
frenzy.
• In satyr plays, the
sikinnis was used, which
probably consisted of
leaping, lurid pantomine
and general
monkeyshines. It often
parodied tragic dance.
• As mentioned before,
comedy used the
kordax, a wild lascivious
dance.

Yet another comic figurine

 COSTUMING
• Most of what we know of
costuming comes from
vase paintings and
figurines and a few
surviving paintings of the
time.
• In the City Dionysia,
actors were responsible
for their own costumes
and the choregos supplied
costuming for the chorus.
• Tragic cast members
probably wore a
contemporary tunic called
a chiton. It was probably
highly embroidered and
decorated and possibly
adapted from robes of Charioteer wearing a long,
Dionysian Priests. formal chiton
• In addition, the
protagonist wore a
long formal cloak
called the himation.
Lesser characters
might have worn a
short informal cloak
called a chlamys.
• Identity might have
been established by
costume props: a
sceptre for a king,
spear for a warrior and
Himation
wreath for a herald.
• Actors wore unique
chitons while the
chorus all dressed the
same.
Chlamys
• For footwear, the entire
cast of a tragedy
probably wore a
kothornos, a soft soled
show with a thick
wooden clog attached
with criss-crossing Ordinary
kothornos
straps going up mid-
calf.
• Comic costume was
also adapted from
everyday use, but not
as decorated, and also Theatrical
kothornos with
exaggerated for comic thick wooden
effect. clogs
• The chiton was too short and too tight, worn over flesh-
colored tights. Also was large padded buttocks and a round
padded stomach.
• For the actors (but not the chorus usually) was the phallus.
It was made of leather, attached by a harness and was
about a foot long. It could be rolled up and sprung at an
appropriate comic moment or stuffed and made to appear
erect, or even left to dangle for even more comic effect.

A vase depicting comic actors,

circa 380 BC
• Very little is known about
satyr play costuming. We
do know that they wore
goatskin loincloths with a
phallus attached, hairy
tails in back and were
probably nude for the rest
of the body. Since real
nudity was deemed
inappropriate for theatre,
this meant flesh-colored
tights.
• Silennus, the leader of the
satyrs wore hairy leggings
and an animal skin cloak A vase depicting a satyr
chorus
 MASKS
• Apparently, nothing could identify character better than a
mask. Both the actors and the chorus wore them.
• They were made from linen, leather or carved from cork or
wood. They were designed to be light for portability and
comfort. Sadly, that is why none exist today.
• Masks were an essential part of the actors’ repertoire.
Maskmakers were a valued part of the production team
and by all accounts, worth their weight in gold.

Fragment of a vase showing a

tragic actor examining his
mask
• Tragic masks were slightly
exaggerated but adhered
to realism.
• Special masks were made
for Gods and supernatural
beings such as the furies in
Aescylus’s Eumenides.
• Masks were molded on
marble heads and
completed with either
human or animal airs.
Actors wore caps to act as
padding .
• Choral masks might have
contained small
megaphones to aid in vocal
A tragic mask mold
projection.
• Even though masks were distinctive, there were some
stereotypes:
• Youthful characters had a rosy complexion and long
flowing hair.
• Older characters had a paler complexion with white curly
locks.
• Dead characters were ghostly white with stringy black hair.
• Satyr masks also had a distinctive look.

Pompeii mosaic
showing both a
tragic and comic
mask
• Satyr masks had bulging
foreheads projecting over
beady little eyes. They
had black curly hair
receding to baldness and
they had horns.
• Comic masks were
intentionally ugly to mock
societal norms of beauty.
• Aristophanes was fond of
caricatures to mock
prominent Greek figures.
• Also used grotesque
animal masks for the
chorus. Mold (?) of a satyr mask
 WHAT CAME NEXT
• After Athens was defeated
in the Peloponnesian War,
theatre declined in quality.
• The tyranny that was set
up by the Spartans was
briefly usurped by a
resurgent democracy.
• But in 338 BC, Philip of
Macedon invaded Athens
and made it a dependent
state in what would
become the Hellenistic
Empire.
Coin imprinted with the
likeness of Philip of Macedon