First Exams 2025

B3.1 Gas Exchange

Theme: Form and Function

Level of Organisation: Organisms

SL and
HL
Combin
ed
Content
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From
IB Guiding Questions the IB

How are multicellular organisms adapted to carry out gas

exchange?
What are the similarities and differences in gas exchange
between a flowering plant and a mammal?
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From
SL & HL Content: B3.1: Gas the IB

Exchange
B3.1.1: Gas exchange as a vital function in all organisms
B3.1.2: Properties of gas-exchange surfaces
B3.1.3: Maintenance of concentration gradients at exchange surfaces in
animals
B3.1.4: Adaptations of mammalian lungs for gas exchange
B3.1.5: Ventilation of the lungs
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From
SL & HL Content: B3.1: Gas the IB

Exchange
B3.1.6: Measurement of lung volumes
B3.1.7: Adaptations for gas exchange in leaves
B3.1.8: Distribution of tissues in a leaf
B3.1.9: Transpiration as a consequence of gas exchange in a leaf
B3.1.10: Stomatal density
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SL & HL Key Terms

Gas Exchange Alveolus / Alveoli Thorax
Diffusion Lungs External Intercostal Muscles
Concentration Gradient Gills Internal Intercostal Muscles
Aerobic Respiration Surfactant Abdominal Muscle
Photosynthesis Ventilation Tidal Volume
Trachea Inspiration Inspiratory Reserve
Bronchus Expiration Expiratory Reserve
Bronchioles Diaphragm Vital Capacity
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SL & HL Key Terms

Spirometer Guard Cells

Waxy Cuticle Plan Diagram
Epidermis Transpiration
Vein Humidity
Xylem Stomatal Density
Phloem Quantitative Data
Spongy Mesophyll Standard Deviation
Stoma / Stomata Standard Error
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From
B3.1.1: Gas exchange as a vital the IB

function in all organisms

Students should appreciate that the challenges become greater as

organisms increase in size because surface area-to-volume ratio
decreases with increasing size, and the distance from the centre of an
organism to its exterior increases.
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Gas Exchange
Cells carrying out aerobic respiration require oxygen to enter the cell,
and the waste product carbon dioxide to exit the cell.
Cells carrying out photosynthesis require carbon dioxide to enter the cell,
and the waste product oxygen to exit the cell.
Gas exchange is the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen gases at cells
and tissues through the process of diffusion.
Large animals need specialized gas exchange systems, and transport
systems to provide cells with sufficient oxygen for respiration.
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Specialized Gas Exchange

Surfaces

❓ Explain why
large animals
require a
specialized gas
exchange
system.
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Specialized Gas Exchange
Surfaces
Unicellular organisms have a small surface area to volume ratio, allowing
them to exchange gases directly through the plasma membrane of cells.
As animals increase in size, the surface area to volume ratio of the animals
decreases, meaning there is less surface area for gas exchange relative to the
size of the organism.
The cells of the organism cannot obtain sufficient oxygen for respiration in all
of the cells.
Gases are exchanged by diffusion, which is a slow process. As an animal
becomes larger, it takes too much time for oxygen to diffuse to all cells.
Large animals require specialized gas exchange and transport systems to
ensure they obtain sufficient oxygen for all of the cells.
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From
B3.1.2: Properties of gas-exchange the IB
surfaces

Include permeability, thin tissue layer, moisture and large surface area.
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Adaptations of Gas Exchange

Surfaces

❓ Outline the
properties of
gas exchange
surfaces
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Adaptations of Gas Exchange
Surfaces
Adaptations of gas exchange systems include:
● Large surface area, which increases the quantity of gas particles
exchanged.
● Very thin tissue layers, which reduces the distance gases must
travel. Exchange tissues are often one cell thick.
● Permeable membranes, which allow the gases to diffuse through
them.
● Concentration gradient for diffusing gases, allowing gases to
diffuse from a high high concentration to low concentration.
● Exchange surfaces are covered in a layer of moisture, allowing the
gases to dissolve and diffuse rapidly.
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From
B3.1.3: Maintenance of the IB

concentration gradients at
exchange surfaces in animals
Include dense networks of blood vessels, continuous blood flow, and
ventilation with air for lungs and with water for gills.
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Maintaining Concentration
Gradients
Gas exchange occurs through diffusion.

❓ Define Diffusion.

Diffusion is the passive transport of particles from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration.
Animals need to maintain a high concentration gradient so that gases will
diffuse rapidly.
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Maintaining Concentration
Gradients
Adaptations to maintain high concentration gradients include:
● A dense network of capillaries surrounding tissues involved in gas
exchange.
● Continuous blood flow through the capillaries surrounding the
tissues involved in gas exchange.

Animals with lungs for gas exchange ventilate the lungs with air, bringing
a high concentration of oxygen to the alveoli, and removing carbon
dioxide from the alveoli.
Animals with gills move water through the gills, providing a high
concentration of oxygen, and moving carbon dioxide away from the gills
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Gas Exchange Through Gills

Gills in fish are
adapted for rapid
exchange of gases
through having a
large surface area for
gas exchange, a
continuous supply of
blood flowing
through the gills, and
water continually
moving through the
gills.
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From
B3.1.4: Adaptations of mammalian the IB

lungs for gas exchange

Limit to the alveolar lungs of a mammal. Adaptations should include the

presence of surfactant, a branched network of bronchioles, extensive
capillary beds and a high surface area.
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Gas Exchange, Ventilation and

Respiration
Gas exchange is exchange of gases at cells and tissues through diffusion.
Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli in the lungs and at respiring tissues.
Ventilation is the movement of air in and out of the alveoli in the lungs,
facilitating gas exchange. Ventilation is breathing.
Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries.
Respiration is the release of ATP energy from organic compounds (food),
which occurs in cells.
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Lungs

Lungs allow for the

exchange of
oxygen from the air
into the
bloodstream, and
carbon dioxide
from the
bloodstream to the
air.
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Label the Diagram of the Lungs

A
❓ Label the
diagram of the
B lungs

D E
The Lungs
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Diagram of the Lungs

Trachea
Alveoli are located
at the end of the
Bronchus bronchioles.

Bronchioles

Right Lung Left Lung

The Lungs
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Adaptations of the Lungs

The lungs are adapted to facilitate the rapid exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between alveoli and the bloodstream.

Adaptations include:
● Branching bronchioles which connect to many
alveoli.
● All of the alveoli in the lungs provide a very
large surface area for gas exchange.

Alveoli Surrounded by a Bed of Capillaries

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Adaptations of the Lungs

● Alveoli secrete a surfactant which prevents
the walls of the alveoli adhering to each other,
and provides a moist surface for gas exchange
● Alveoli are surrounded by an extensive
capillary bed, which maintains high
concentration gradients for O2 and CO2
between the blood and alveoli.
The capillaries provide a continuous supply of
blood with low oxygen concentration and high
carbon dioxide concentration to the alveoli. Alveoli Surrounded by a Bed of Capillaries
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From
B3.1.5: Ventilation of the lungs the IB

Students should understand the role of the diaphragm, intercostal

muscles, abdominal muscles and ribs.
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Ventilation of the Lungs

Ventilation has two
stages:
● Inspiration
(breathing in)
● Expiration
(breathing out.
Read the linked article.

❓ Explain ventilation
of the lungs.
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP15104
6.4.U1 Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and
blood flowing in adjacent capillaries.

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072495855/s
tudent_view0/chapter25/animation__gas_exchange_d
uring_respiration.html
6.4.U4 Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles.

Can you use the diagram to produce a flow chart to show

the passage of air into the lungs?
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Ventilation: Inspiration
Inspiration involves:
The diaphragm contracts and moves
downwards.
The external intercostal muscles contract,
moving the ribcage up and out.
The volume in the thorax increases, decreasing
the pressure in the lungs.
Air passively moves from the surrounding air
(with high pressure) into the lungs where there is
low pressure. Inspiration
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Ventilation: Expiration
Expiration involves:
The abdominal muscles contract and push the
diaphragm upwards.
The external intercostal muscles relax and the
internal intercostal muscles contract, moving the
ribcage down and inwards.
The volume in the thorax decreases, increasing
the pressure in the lungs.
The high pressure in the lungs moves air out of
the lungs to the surrounding air, where pressure
Inspiration
is lower.
6.4.A3 External and internal intercostal muscles, and diaphragm and abdominal muscles as examples of antagonistic
muscle action. AND 6.4.U5 Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of
the lungs to ventilate them.
Summary of the mechanics of ventilation
Inspiration Expiration

pressure change

s
se
u
ca volume change
s
se
ribcage movement
u
ca

external intercostal muscles

internal intercostal muscles

diaphragm

abdominal muscles

diagrams

http://media1.shmoop.com/images/biology/biobook_animalmovement_graphik_36.png
6.4.A3 External and internal intercostal muscles, and diaphragm and abdominal muscles as examples of antagonistic
muscle action. AND 6.4.U5 Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of
the lungs to ventilate them.
Summary of the mechanics of ventilation
Inspiration Expiration

pressure change decrease in pressure increase in pressure

s
se
(draws air inwards) (pushes air outwards)
u
ca volume change increase decrease
s
se
u

ribcage movement up and outward down and inward

ca

external intercostal muscles contract relax

internal intercostal muscles relax contract

diaphragm contract relax

(flattens, moves downwards)
abdominal muscles relax contract
(pushes the diaphragm up)
diagrams

http://media1.shmoop.com/images/biology/biobook_animalmovement_graphik_36.png
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From
B3.1.6: Measurement of lung the IB

volumes
Application of skills: Students should make measurements to determine
tidal volume, vital capacity, and inspiratory and expiratory reserves.
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Lung Volumes

❓ Define:
● Tidal volume
● Inspiratory
reserve
● Expiratory
reserve
● Vital capacity
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Lung Volumes
Lung volumes include:
● Tidal volume: the volume of air that moves in and out of the lungs in
a normal breath.
● Inspiratory reserve: the additional volume of air that can be inhaled with
maximum effort.
● Expiratory reserve: the additional volume of air that can be exhaled with
maximum effort.
● Vital capacity: the greatest volume of air that can be expelled from the
lungs after the deepest possible breath.
Vital capacity = tidal volume + inspiratory reserve + expiratory reserve
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Measuring Lung Volumes

Spirometers are instruments used to measure air capacity of the lungs.
Students should use spirometers to determine tidal volume, vital
capacity, and inspiratory and expiratory reserves.
Students could measure vital capacity using either balloons or water
displacement.
Instructions for carrying out determining vital capacity using balloons
and water displacement are available from the Ontario Science Centre.
Biology Corner has a guided investigation on
factors that affect lung capacity.
6.4.S1 Monitoring of ventilation in humans at rest and after mild and vigorous exercise. (Practical 6)

Monitoring ventilation : design an investigation, collect and analyse the data

Independent variable: the intensity of

exercise
What type of exercise? For how long?
How will you make sure that individuals
exercise similarly?
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lungvolumes_Updated.png

Dependent variable: What measure(s) are

Data analysis: you should be calculating a rate.
you using for ventilation?
For example the count of breaths or tidal
Frequency of breaths? Spirometer data volume per unit time (s or min)
showing tidal volumes?

Ethical and safety concerns: how are you making sure

Controlled variables: what are the key factors that the experiment is safe? Are participants aware of
that need to be measured and kept constant the risks? Are you seeking written permission from
to ensure a fair test? participants?
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DoingSpirometry.JPG
 Practical Question
● Do the practice questions on ventilation
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From
B3.1.7: Adaptations for gas the IB

exchange in leaves
Leaf structure adaptations should include the waxy cuticle, epidermis,
air spaces, spongy mesophyll, stomatal guard cells and veins.
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Adaptation of Leaves
Leaves carry out
respiration and
photosynthesis, and
therefore need to be
adapted to exchange
oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Leaves also need to
be adapted to
reduce water loss.
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Leaf Structure
❓ Explain how the Waxy Cuticle
Upper Epidermis
following help
the leaf to carry Palisade Mesophyll

out its function:

Xylem Spongy
● Waxy Cuticle Mesophyll
Vein
● Epidermis
● Spongy Phloem
Lower Epidermis
Mesophyll
● Air Spaces Guard Cells Air
● Stomata and Spaces
Stoma
Guard Cells
● Veins The linked article includes information on leaf adaptations
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Adaptations of Leaf Structure

Waxy cuticle: The waxy cuticle covers the epidermis cells and reduces
the evaporation of water from the leaf.
Epidermis: The epidermis provides protection for the mesophyll cells
within the leaf. Epidermal cells are transparent, allowing light to reach
the mesophyll cells where photosynthesis is carried out.
Spongy mesophyll: The irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells
increases the surface area for gas exchange. The spongy mesophyll cells
are surrounded by air spaces.
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Adaptations of Leaf Structure

Air spaces: Air spaces around spongy mesophyll cells facilitate the
diffusion of gases between the surrounding atmosphere and the
mesophyll cells.
Stomata: Stomata are pores which allow gases to enter and exit the leaf.
Stomata are usually more common on the lower epidermis of the leaf.
The stomata are open and closed by guard cells.
Veins: Veins provide support for the leaf. They contain xylem and phloem
tissue. Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots. Phloem
transports nutrients up and down the plant.
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From
B3.1.8: Distribution of tissues in a the IB

leaf
Students should be able to draw and label a plan diagram to show the
distribution of tissues in a transverse section of a dicotyledonous leaf.
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Drawing Leaf Structures

❓ Draw and label a plan

diagram to show the
distribution of tissues in
a transverse section of a
dicotyledonous leaf.

Note: Plan diagrams do not

show individual cells, only
the distribution of tissues
Diagram of a cross section of a leaf. - This is not a plan diagram.
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Plan Diagram of a Leaf

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From
B3.1.9: Transpiration as a the IB

consequence of gas exchange in a

leaf
Students should be aware of the factors affecting the rate of
transpiration.
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Transpiration

Transpiration is the movement of

water through a plant, and its
evaporation from aerial parts of the
plant such as leaves.
Transpiration is an inevitable
consequence of gas exchange, as
water in mesophyll cells evaporates,
and diffuses through the open
stomata.

Transpiration
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Factors Affecting Transpiration

Water diffuses from the
high concentration of
water particles within the
air spaces of the spongy
mesophyll to the low
concentration of water
particles in the
atmosphere.
❓ Explain how four
factors affect the rate
of transpiration.
 Factors Affecting Transpiration
The following factors affect the rate of transpiration:
1. Light intensity: As light intensity increases, more stomata open. If
there are more open stomata, then more water can diffuse out of the
leaf, increasing the rate of transpiration.
2. Temperature: As the temperature increases, the water particles gain
kinetic energy, and move faster. Faster moving water particles diffuse
through the stomata of the leaf at a faster rate. Additionally, higher
temperatures increase the rate of evaporation, which also increases
the rate of transpiration.
 Factors Affecting Transpiration
3. Humidity: As humidity increases, the concentration of water outside
the leaf increases. This decreases the concentration gradient
between the inside and outside of the leaf. Water particles will
diffuse slower, resulting in a slower rate of transpiration.

4. Air flow (wind): As air flows past the leaf, it moves water vapour away
from the leaf, reducing the concentration of water outside the
stomata of a leaf. This increases the concentration gradient, resulting
in an increase in the rate of transpiration.
SL and HL Content
From
B3.1.10: Stomatal Density the IB

Application of skills: Students should use micrographs or perform leaf

casts to determine stomatal density.
Nature of Science: Reliability of quantitative data is increased by
repeating measurements. In this case, repeated counts of the number of
stomata visible in the field of view at high power illustrate the variability
of biological material and the need for replicate trials.
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Stomatal Density
Stomatal density is the number of stomata per unit
area of a leaf.
Students should use microscopes to determine the
stomatal density of leaves.
A microscope with a graticule is required, so the
the area of the leaf viewed under the microscope
can be calculated.
SAPS provide methods for
determining the stomatal density of a leaf, Stomata viewed under a microscope using an
eyepiece graticule.
including suggestions for investigations that can be
carried out regarding factors that affect stomatal
density.
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Reliability of Quantitative Data

Nature of Science:
Quantitative data is any data which involves numbers.
The reliability of data is determined by the range of data collected, often
determined by calculating standard deviation or standard error to
determine the reliability of data collected.
Carrying out more replicates provides the scientist with greater
confidence regarding the variation within data collected.
In this case, repeated counts of the number of stomata visible in the field
of view at high power illustrate the variability of biological material and
the need for replicate trials.
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Review and Discuss: SL & HL Key

Terms
Gas Exchange Alveolus / Alveoli Thorax
Diffusion Lungs External Intercostal Muscles
Concentration Gradient Gills Internal Intercostal Muscles
Aerobic Respiration Surfactant Abdominal Muscle
Photosynthesis Ventilation Tidal Volume
Trachea Inspiration Inspiratory Reserve
Bronchus Expiration Expiratory Reserve
Bronchioles Diaphragm Vital Capacity
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Review and Discuss: SL & HL Key

Terms
Spirometer Guard Cells
Waxy Cuticle Plan Diagram
Epidermis Transpiration
Vein Humidity
Xylem Stomatal Density
Phloem Quantitative Data
Spongy Mesophyll Standard Deviation
Stoma / Stomata Standard Error
SL and HL Content
From
B3.1 Gas Exchange - IB Linking the IB

Questions

How do multicellular organisms solve the problem of access to materials

for all their cells?
What is the relationship between gas exchange and metabolic processes
in cells?
Additional
HL
Conte
nt
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Additional HL Content: From

the IB
B3.1 Cell Exchange

B3.1.11: Adaptations of foetal and adult haemoglobin for the transport of

oxygen
B3.1.12: Bohr shift
B3.1.13: Oxygen dissociation curves as a means of representing the
affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen at different oxygen
concentrations
HL Content Only

HL Only Key Terms

Oxygen Dissociation Curve Bohr Shift

Oxygen Affinity Enzyme
Partial Pressure Carbonic Anhydrase
Haemoglobin Chloride Shift
Haem Group
Adult Haemoglobin
Foetal Haemoglobin
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From
B3.1.13: Oxygen dissociation curves the IB

as a means of representing the

affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen
at different oxygen concentrations

Explain the S-shaped form of the curve in terms of cooperative binding.

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Partial Pressures of Gases

Partial pressure of a gas is the pressure exerted by a single gas when it is
found in a mixture of gases.
Partial pressure of a gas depends on:
● The total pressure exerted by all of the gases in a mixture.
● The concentration of the gas in the mixture of gases.
Partial pressure of gases is correlated with the concentration of a gas in
solution.
Partial pressures are used when looking at oxygen and carbon dioxide in
blood.
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Oxygen Dissociation Curve

An oxygen dissociation curve shows the
affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
At low partial pressures of oxygen,
haemoglobin has a very low affinity for
oxygen.
As the partial pressure of oxygen
increases, haemoglobin’s affinity for
oxygen increases.
At high partial pressures, the curve
flattens, as most haemoglobin molecules
have four oxygen molecules attached. Oxygen Dissociation Curve
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Oxygen Dissociation Curve

❓ Explain the
shape of the
oxygen
dissociation
curve
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Oxygen Dissociation Curve

The oxygen dissociation curve has a sigmoid shape.

Four molecules of oxygen can bind to the four haem groups in

haemoglobin.
At low partial pressures of oxygen, haemoglobin has a low affinity for
oxygen, demonstrated by the slow initial increase in saturation of
haemoglobin.
When one oxygen binds to haemoglobin, it causes a conformational
change in the shape of haemoglobin, which increases the affinity of
haemoglobin for oxygen.
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Oxygen Dissociation Curve

This results in a rapid increase in the oxygen saturation of haemoglobin
as the partial pressure of oxygen increases, which allows two additional
oxygen molecules to bind to haemoglobin.

This is an example of cooperative binding, as the attachment of one

oxygen enhances the affinity of haemoglobin, allowing the addition of
more oxygen.
At high partial pressures, the curve flattens, as most haemoglobin
molecules are saturated with oxygen.
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Oxygen Dissociation Curve

❓ Use the oxygen dissociation curve to
explain what happens to oxygen in
capillaries surrounding the alveoli of
the lungs.

In the lungs, there is a high partial

pressure of oxygen which diffuses into the
capillaries surrounding the alveoli.
Haemoglobin has a high affinity for
oxygen, due to the high partial pressure.
Haemoglobin becomes saturated with
oxygen. Oxygen Dissociation Curve
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Oxygen Dissociation Curve

❓ Use the oxygen dissociation curve to
explain what happens to oxygen in
capillaries near respiring tissue.
Respiring tissue uses oxygen, therefore
there is a very low partial pressure of
oxygen around respiring tissue.
At very low partial pressures,
haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen.
Haemoglobin releases oxygen, which
diffuses into the respiring tissue to be
used for aerobic respiration. Oxygen Dissociation Curve
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From
B3.1.11: Adaptations of foetal and the IB
adult haemoglobin for the
transport of oxygen
Include cooperative binding of oxygen to haem groups and allosteric
binding of carbon dioxide.
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Haemoglobin
❓ Describe the four levels of
organization of a conjugated
protein using haemoglobin as an
example.
Haem
The haem groups in haemoglobin Groups
can bind to an oxygen molecule.
Each hemoglobin molecule has four
haem groups, so can bind to four
oxygen molecules.
Haemoglobin
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Cooperative Binding of Oxygen to

Haemoglobin
Cooperative binding of oxygen refers to the phenomenon where the
binding of one oxygen molecule to a haemoglobin molecule facilitates
the binding of additional oxygen molecules.
If there is no oxygen attached to haemoglobin, its affinity for oxygen is
low, meaning that the partial pressure of oxygen must be high for
oxygen to bind.
However, once a single oxygen molecule binds to one haem group the
shape of the haemoglobin molecule changes, increasing haemoglobin’s
affinity for oxygen.
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Carbon Dioxide and Haemoglobin

Carbon dioxide is transported in three ways in the blood:
● A small amount of CO2 is dissolved in the blood plasma.
● Some CO2 is bound to haemoglobin.

● Most CO2 is reversibly converted to hydrogen carbonate ions and

hydrogen ions (H+) in red blood cells.
The hydrogen ions bind to haemoglobin, causing a conformational
change of the protein, which increases its affinity for oxygen.
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Adult and Foetal Haemoglobin

Adult haemoglobin
has two alpha and two
beta chains of
polypeptides, while
foetal haemoglobin
has two alpha and two
gamma chains of
polypeptides.
❓ Explain how oxygen
is transferred from
maternal blood to
foetal blood.
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Foetal Haemoglobin
There is a high partial pressure of oxygen
in maternal blood, and a low partial
pressure in foetal blood.
Foetal haemoglobin has a greater affinity
for oxygen than adult haemoglobin.
Oxygen is more likely to be transferred
from adult to foetal haemoglobin.
The adult haemoglobin releases oxygen
due to high partial pressure of oxygen,
while foetal haemoglobin binds to oxygen Oxygen Dissociation Curves for Adult and Foetal Haemoglobin

due to low partial pressure.

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From
B3.1.12: Bohr shift the IB

Students should understand how an increase in carbon dioxide causes

increased dissociation of oxygen and the benefits of this for actively
respiring tissues.
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The Bohr Shift

High partial pressures of
carbon dioxide reduce the
affinity of haemoglobin for
oxygen, which shift the
oxygen dissociation curve to
the right.
The shift of the oxygen
dissociation curve due to
carbon dioxide partial
pressures is known as the
Bohr shift (or Bohr effect).
The Bohr Shift
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The Bohr Shift

❓ Explain why
haemoglobin will
release carbon
dioxide around
respiring tissues,
but is likely to
upload oxygen in
the lungs.

Refer to the Bohr shift

and oxygen dissociation
curves in your answer.
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Bohr Shift at Respiring Tissues

Tissues use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide during aerobic
respiration.

Therefore there is a very low partial pressure of oxygen, which reduces

the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
The high partial pressure of carbon dioxide causes a Bohr shift, which
further reduces the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
Haemoglobin releases oxygen at respiring tissues.
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Bohr Shift at the Lungs

There is a high concentration of oxygen, and a low concentration of
carbon dioxide in the alveoli of the lungs.

Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood, creating a high partial
pressure of oxygen, resulting in high affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into alveoli, creating a low partial
pressure in the blood. The low partial pressure causes a Bohr shift,
resulting in a stronger affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
High oxygen and low carbon dioxide partial pressures result in oxygen
binding to haemoglobin at high saturation levels.
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Carbon Dioxide in Red Blood Cells

Most of the carbon

dioxide in the
blood diffuses into
red blood cells.
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Carbon Dioxide in Red Blood Cells

Carbon dioxide diffuses into red
blood cells.
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to
form carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Carbonic acid dissociates to form
hydrogen carbonate ions and
hydrogen ions. This reaction is
catalysed by carbonic anhydrase. Hydrogen Carbonate reactions in the blood

H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+
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Carbon Dioxide in Red Blood Cells

The hydrogen carbonate ion leaves the cell and chloride ions (Cl -) enter
the cell. This is known as the chloride shift.
The hydrogen ion binds to haemoglobin, causing a conformational
change, which increases the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.

The reactions are reversible, releasing CO 2 when the partial pressure of

carbon dioxide is low in the blood plasma.
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HL Only Key Terms

Oxygen Dissociation Curve Bohr Shift

Oxygen Affinity Enzyme
Partial Pressure Carbonic Anhydrase
Haemoglobin Chloride Shift
Haem Group
Adult Haemoglobin
Foetal Haemoglobin
SL and HL Content
From
B3.1 Gas Exchange - IB Linking the IB

Questions

What are the advantages of small size and large size in biological
systems?
How do cells become differentiated?
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