(SFUCHAS) Malaria Vectors (DT - Nov. 2024)

Malaria III: Malaria vectors –
Anopheles mosquitos
Lecture Nov. 2024

Prof D.S.Tarimo
General: Mosquitoes as vectors of malaria,
filariasis & arboviruses
Mosquitoes belong to: Class  Insecta, Order 
Diptera, Family  Culicidae
 Sub-family  Anophelines & Culicines
 Anophelines  Genus Anopheles malaria &
filariasis vectors
 Culicines  Genera: Culex, Aedes & Mansonia 
filarial vectors. Aedes also transmits YF & RVF
(Arboviruses)
They are cosmopolitan  Tropics & Sub-Tropics
Morphology: General
 Adult: slender & relatively small, measure
4 – 6 mm in length; body divided into
head, thorax & abdomen.
 Two wings (Diptera), proboscis & scales
on thorax, legs, abdomen & wings.
 Mouthparts collectively proboscis
(adapted for blood sucking - phlebotomy).
Mosquito Characteristics (note conspicuous
forward projecting proboscis)
Morphology contd…
• Proboscis a labium (largest component),

labrum, hypopharynx & two pairs of
maxilla & mandibles.
• Mandibles & maxillae with labrum &
hypopharynx adapted for biting by
females.
• Non-biting males  mandibles & maxillae
reduced in size or absent.
Malaria vectors: Female Anopheles
mosquitoes
Adult female Anopheles feeding: wings 
dark & pale scales (in distinct blocks on
veins)
Mouthparts of Anopheles sp. mosquitos
 This genus of mosquito can be identified

by its palps, which are almost as long as
the proboscis, and the 45-degree angle at
which it sits when resting or feeding.
 Males are easily recognized by the

plumose hairs on their antennae (bushy
antennae).
females
Comparison of
male & female
Anophelines
vs. Culicines
Culicine
Anopheline
males
Malaria vectors in Africa: Anopheles
gambiae complex
 A group of morphologically indistinguishable
malaria vectors.
 Genetically & behaviorally they are distinct
mosquito species
 They vary dramatically in their importance as
vectors of malaria in Africa.
 They are common during or soon after rainfalls
PROF D.S.TARIMO
Members of Anopheles gambiae complex
 Anopheles gambiae s.s→ breed in small temporary

habitats, bite nocturnally _ indoors, highly
anthropophilic. Common during or soon after rains;
most efficient malaria vector in the world.
 An. arabiensis → wide spread, common in dry
areas, bite humans but rest outdoors, has zoophilic
tendencies;
PROF D.S.TARIMO
Members of Anopheles gambiae complex
 Salt water spps: An. merus [East Africa] &

An. melas [West Africa].
 An bwambae (Bwamba county, Tororo _
Uganda)
Malaria vectors in Africa:
Anopheles funnestus
 Prefer more or less permanent water bodies with
vegetations → marshy swamps, streams, river
banks etc. Prefer shaded habitats, bite humans
nocturnally indoors & rest indoors.
 Common in dry seasons; like An gambiae, it is
also very efficient malaria vector, and has been
implicated to maintain residual malaria
transmission.
PROF D.S.TARIMO
Life cycle: eggs larvae pupa adults
(Complete metamorphosis)
Blood feeding & gonotrophic cycle
 Mating occurs shortly after emergence from
pupa.
 Sperms passed into the ♀ spermatheca
(fertilize all eggs in her lifetime). Most ♀s need
a blood meal for the development of eggs in the
ovaries.
 Takes 2 – 3 days (tropics), 7 – 14 days
(temperate) to digest blood meal & fully formed
eggs.
Life cycle contd..
• Gravid ♀ searches for suitable larval

habitat to lay eggs.
• After oviposition, the cycle repeats, a
further batch of eggs is matured, followed
by oviposition.
• Process repeated several times of her life
(gonotrophic cycle).
Oviposition & biology of eggs
• Depending on species, ♀s lay about 30 –

300 brownish or blackish eggs at any one
oviposition.
• In many Culicines, the eggs are elongated
or approximately ovoid in shape.
• In Anophelines, the eggs are boat shaped
• Many mosquitoes such as species of
Anopheles, Culex and some Mansonia lay
their eggs directly on the water surface.
Oviposition & biology of eggs contd..
• In Anopheles, eggs are laid singly & float on the

water surface, whereas those of Culex & some
Mansonia are laid stuck together in “egg rafts”
which float on the water surface.
• The eggs hatch within 2 – 3 days (tropics) 7 – 14
days in cooler temperate countries.
• In Aedes, the eggs are laid just above the water
line on dump substrates (mud, leaves, tree
holes, clay pots).
Larval biology
 Larvae are legless, have a bulbous thorax that is
wider than both the head and abdomen.
 Larvae develop through 4 active instars, water is
obligatory for development.
 Larvae of Anopheles must come to the water
surface to breath.
 Anopheles larvae lie parallel with the water
surface; breathe though its respiratory spiracles
on the 8th tergite.
 Larvae feed on yeast, bacteria, protozoa & other
microorganism.
Anopheles larval habitats
Vary from:
• Large (usually permanent) water
collections (fresh water swamps, marshes,
rice fields & borrow pits) TO
• Small collections of temporary water
(small pools, puddles, hoof prints etc to
water filed tree holes, leaf axils, coconut
shells etc).
Larval habitats contd..
• Any collection of permanent or temporary

water can constitute larval habitat.
• Larvae are usually absent from large
expanses of uninterrupted waters e.g
lakes & seas especially if there are large
numbers of fish & other predators.
• Larvae also absent from large rivers & fast
flowing waters except in marshy and
isolated pools formed at the edges.
Pupal biology
• Mosquito pupae are aquatic and comma-
shaped.
• Head & thorax combined cephalothorax
with a pair of respiratory trumpets dorsally.
• Pupae do not feed, spend most time at
water surface taking air.
• Pupal period 2 – 3 days (tropics) or 9 –
12 days or more (cooler temperate
regions).
Adult mosquitoes
 Adults emerge from the pupal case
through a longitudinal slit along the back of
the cephalothorax.
 After a short rest, they take flight.
 Blood sucking follows within 24 hrs.
 Adult Anopheles mosquitoes differ greatly
in their habitats, feeding and resting habits
Adult Anopheles: Feeding & resting habits
 Some prefer to feed on man (anthropophilic); some

prefer to feed on animals (zoophilic).
 Host preference (zoophily or anthropophily) vary
within species
 Some feed indoors (endophagic) and some
outdoors (exophagic).
 Some rest indoors; some outdoors in the bush, etc
 Some rest on walls after feeding; some don’t land on
walls
The habits have control implications
Control of Anopheles: Measures against
adults
• Use of ITNs – protect against bite
• House screens – windows & doors
• Use of repellants – oils, creams, lotions, coils
• Site selection – for housing, camping,
recreational places
• Zooprophylaxis- for zoophylic species i.e put an
animal shield in between breeding sites and
human settlements
• Insectides residual spray inside houses (IRS).
Mosquito net: LLNs (long lasting insecticide
treated net – Ngao ya muda mrefu ie 5 yrs
Control of Anopheles: Measures against
larvae – larval source management (LSM)
 LSM targets the immature, aquatic stages
(larvae & pupae), thereby reducing the
abundance of adult vectors.
 LSM is the management of water bodies that are
potential larval habitats for mosquitoes, in order
to prevent the completion of development of the
immature stages.
Types of LSM:
1) Habitat modification: A permanent alteration to
the environment, aimed at eliminating larval
habitats, including: Landscaping, surface water
drainage, filling & land reclamation.
2) Habitat manipulation: Temporary environmental
changes to disrupt vector breeding, including:
Water-level manipulation, e.g. flushing, drain
clearance to eliminate pooling; & Shading or
exposing habitats to the sun depending on the
ecology of the vector
Types of LSM
Biological control: The introduction of
natural enemies into larval habitats,
including:
• Predatory fish
• Predatory invertebrates
• Parasites or other disease-causing
organisms.
Types of LSM
Surface oils and films, e.g. highly refined
oils and biodegradable ethoxylated alcohol
sur- factants, or “monomolecular films”
(MMF) that suffocate larvae and pupae;
Synthetic organic chemicals, e.g.
Organophosphates (interfere with nervous
system of immature larval stages) such as
chlorpyrifos, fenthion, pirimiphos-methyl and
temephos
Types of LSM
Bacteria, e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis subsp.
israelensis (Bti), and Bacillus sphaericus (Bs) that
produce insecticidal crystal proteins (larval toxins).
 Upon ingestion by larvae, attack the gut lining
stopping feeding and then death.
 Use of Bti deployed (as a pilot) in Ilala
municipality, urban Dar es Salaam, currently
mass production in Tz, Kibaha plant.

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Malaria III: Malaria vectors –

Lecture Nov. 2024

• Proboscis a labium (largest component),

 This genus of mosquito can be identified

 Males are easily recognized by the

 Anopheles gambiae s.s→ breed in small temporary

 Salt water spps: An. merus [East Africa] &

• Gravid ♀ searches for suitable larval

• Depending on species, ♀s lay about 30 –

• In Anopheles, eggs are laid singly & float on the

• Any collection of permanent or temporary

 Some prefer to feed on man (anthropophilic); some

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