SCI 101 Introduction to

Social Sciences
Week 7 – The Functions and Forms of Government
Lecturer Niyper Hayal Artaç
 Government

 The government is the set of institutions by which a society is ruled.

The Primary Functions of Government

 In every society of any size, some form of organized government develops due to the need for an agency capable
of exercising overall social control. The role of government can be better understood while examining the specific
functions most governments perform or claim to perform.

Maintaining Internal Order and External Security

 Though the functions of government are many and varied, its basic job is to protect its citizens from internal and
external enemies. The highest value in every political society is self-preservation, and the government is the one
agency equipped to protect a nation. It possesses the power to enforce obedience to the rules of life that the
society had established.

 The government, as the guardian of internal social order, employs police, prisons, and courts in its attempts to
protect persons, property, and rights.
 Government

Ensuring Justice

 The belief in justice appears to be universal, and every modern government professes devotion to it. Justice is the
maintenance or administration of what is considered fair by law. It is a concept that involves the relationships of individuals.

 Not all governments strive for justice, although most generally profess to do so. All governments based on popular support
aspire to convince the people that they are being treated justly.

 People have confidence in their governments to the extent that they deal out rewards and punishment by the popular
conception of justice. People are willing to submit their private disputes for public settlements when they have faith that
justice will be done.

Safeguarding Individual Freedoms

 Without some kind of government, there can be no organized, stable society, and without a stable society, there can be little
real freedom for individuals. All governments profess to try to safeguard certain freedoms by maintaining law and order. But
like the case of ensuring justice, not all governments do. Democratic governments go further than nondemocratic
governments; they have come to accept the defense of individual freedoms as a primary function.
 Government
Regulating Individuals’ Actions

 In the growth of modern societies, many institutions and groups have developed to perform various functions. Some of these institutions and groups provide
important social services but often they also have selfish interests that are contrary to the welfare of society. The government may find it necessary to
regulate their activities.

Promoting the General Welfare

 The government as the agency for overall social control cannot escape the task of promoting the general welfare. The general welfare activities of the
government have multiplied many times in recent decades, but governments have always to some degree undertaken by positive means to promote the
material well-being of their citizens.

 The government provides the institutional structure within which economic and social interaction can take place. It regulates the economy; levies taxes; and
prohibits, protects, and provides services to benefit individuals, groups, and the whole of society.

 Whenever citizens leave home in a car, they drive on streets and roads provided by the government; they can enjoy parks set aside by the government;
they can send their children to government-supported schools; they can travel abroad on government-issued passports, and in case of trouble can go to the
consular or diplomatic agents of their gov­ernment for aid; they can receive help from the government when they are unemployed or disabled; and if
accused of breaking a law, they can be heard in a court established by gov­ernment. These are only a few of how individuals are taxed, controlled, or
benefited by the government, all to promote the general welfare.

 Welfare activities of the government include health services, education, social security, and various other benefits. There is debate about what kind of
health insurance coverage the federal government should provide citizens, or about how to re­structure the way it provides welfare services.
 Debates about the Nature of Government
 In the evolution of the state over the centuries, the nature of government functions has in many ways remained the same. However, as
other social institutions, such as the family and social mores, have evolved in response to technological change, the ways that governments
carry out these functions have changed and so have the forms of government. Differences in culture have led different states down
different paths and, therefore, to differing forms of government.

Political Theory and Government

 Government is by far the most powerful of all social institutions. It controls resources of extreme physical coercion, and it has taken over
countless functions and responsibilities that are oversized in the family, religion, and business enterprises, such as education and various
social services. For example, in earlier times children took care of elderly parents; today, the government often does this through social
programs such as Medicare. Although the government today is in a position to regulate and control all their social institutions, it is in turn
controlled by them.

 Politics is how individuals affect government. Because of the importance of government and politics, an immense area of study,
called political theory, has developed to study governments and politics. Political theory is that area of inquiry dealing with the
nature of government and politics.

 Political theory has its origins in the writings of Aristotle, but our current systems of government are founded more on the writings of
political theorists John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. Their alternative views of the relationships between the individual and the state form
the basis of many modern political ideologies held so deeply and with such conviction that a person is willing to die for those beliefs.
 Forms of Government
 Both the word and the concept of democracy come from the Greeks: demos means "people" and kratos means "rule." Thus
democracy means the rule of the people. Democracy are government based on a popular vote; elections decide who will
be in power.

Characteristics of a Democracy:

 About a democracy, the first thing that usually comes to mind is the concept of popular sovereignty which is the right of individuals
to select their leaders by voting for them. A state that does not have popular sovereignty cannot be a democracy. We use the
com­plicated term popular sovereignty rather than voting because the mere act of voting does not guarantee that the people decide
who will be their leaders. In decid­ing whether a government is democratic, we must consider whether popular sovereignty prevails,
or whether the voting is simply a matter of form. Universal adult suffrage is not sufficient to make a political system democratic if
the voters have no real choice among candidates.

 The essential requisite for political democracy is that the people are ultimately sovereign. Not only are the people the source of all
political power, but they also are the masters of any government they establish to serve their interests. The "consent of the
governed" means more than passive acquiescence; it means the power to control. For the people to control the government, there
must be (1) freedom of speech, (2) effective legislative organs to represent the people, and (3) free elections in which
the people may change the government by legally and hence peaceful methods.
 Forms of Government
 Most modern democrats in the West consider freedom or liberty to be an essential element of democracy. But popular
sovereignty means, in effect, majority rule, and there is always some tension or conflict between majority rule and the ideal of
individual liberty. There is no way of completely resolving this conflict, but if the ruling majority is reasonably tolerant it attempts to
limit personal freedom only in situations in which such freedom would interfere with the freedom and rights of others.

 Keywords that indicate important aspects of the democratic method are free discussion, accommodation, compromise,
moderation, tolerance, and reconciliation. If these aspects exist to a sufficient degree, the definition of democracy as a majority
rule is perhaps acceptable. It means that the majority will respect and guarantee the rights of the minorities and it will allow the
minorities the right to try to become majority.

 Democratic Concept of the Individual. Every philosophical, social, and political system is based on certain assumptions about the
nature of human beings, and no political system can be understood without a knowledge of the assumptions it makes about humans
and their relationship to society and government. Democratic assumptions are worlds apart from those made by dictatorships. Not all
democratic assumptions can be demonstrated but they are part of the democratic faith and the democratic ideal. Democracy demands
that the common people exercise sovereign authority over themselves, maintain freedom, and employ the judgment needed to secure
the blessings of good government.
 Forms of Government
 Rationality and the Democratic Way of Life. The democratic theory assumes that people are capable of developing a culture in
which individuals will have learned to listen to discussions and arguments, and in which they will try to discover the truth by a
rational weighing’’ of the evidence. It assumes that human society is possible in that the people will realize that they cannot get all
they want from the government and that is in everyone’s interest to make compromises. In a successful democracy, every important
group must be willing to make such concessions to the interests of others.

 Equality. The democratic theory holds that all humans should be regarded as equal, not in ability or achievement but in legal status
and in their right to seek the good life. It does not insist that people are equal in beauty, brawn, and brains; in money and morals; or
power and prestige, but it does assert that all are equal before the law. It may even be said that the basic assumption underlying
democratic government is that all citizens are capable of making wise political decisions. It follows all should be given equal
opportunities to participate in the political process: to vote, to hold office, to have opinions, and to strive to make their opinions
prevail.

 Primacy of the Individual. Democratic philosophy and democratic government put primary emphasis on the dignity and worth of
the individual. Government and society are considered to exist for the individual. The best organization of society is regarded as the
one that enhances the dignity of the individual and provides for the fullest and richest development of personality. The individual is
considered to be the primary unit, one whose interests should be served by all social institutions. Individuals are not to be
considered as means; they are the ends, for which all else exists.
 Forms of Government
 Where Democracy Works Best. Democracy is a Western ideology, and we often think that it is the solution to all political problems.
Unfortunately, it is not. For democracy to work, one needs the right environment. The right environment includes a tradition of respect
for individual rights, a commitment to solving problems peacefully, a relatively homogeneous population, a commitment to minority
rights, a commitment to democracy over other obligations such as religion, a generally acceptable distribution of income and wealth,
an educated population, a free press, and a commitment to law. In many countries of the world, this environment does not exist,
making the establishment of a well-functioning democracy difficult if not impossible.

 Alternative Forms of Democracy. The fundamental requirements of democracy are not to be confused with any precise type of
governmental organization. It may be direct (as in a New England town meeting, which every citizen can attend) or representative (as
it must be in all units with large populations). It may be presidential (as in the United States) or parliamentary (as in Britain, Canada,
and Italy). It may be unitary (as in Britain and France) or federal (as in the United States). It may exist where there is either a written or
an unwritten constitution, but there must be in some sense a constitution or fundamental law that the government respects. It may
exist in a republic (as in the United States and France) or in a constitutional monarchy (as in Sweden and Britain).
 Forms of Government
 Autocracy. A government is one in which a single person or a small group of people has or claims unlimited power. Like democracies, autocracies come in many varieties.

Antiquity had rulers in the clan, tribe city-state, and empire. The names of some of the great Roman dictators are known Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar, and Marcus

Aurelius.

 The absolute monarchies that emerged from the disintegration of feudalism in the Middle Ages constituted the type of authoritarian rule commonly found before the

emergence of the 20th century of fascism and communism.

 Like many 20th-century autocracies, absolute monarchies were marked by arbitrary rule. Unlike most contemporary autocracies, absolute monarchies were stable because

usually, one hereditary ruler followed another without introducing any basic changes in society. In modern societies, we generally do not have absolute monarchies Instead,

we usually have limited monarchies in which the monarch plays a ceremonial role but has little to say in the governing of the country.

 In the twentieth century, various types of autocracies developed under different conditions in different countries. The two basic types of autocracies that remain are

the authoritarian and the totalitarian.

 An authoritarian autocracy is one in which the society is ruled by a dictator who forbids all activities that threaten its position.

 A totalitarian autocracy wants to control all aspects of an individual's life.

 Most totalitarian autocracies are based on an ideology. With this ideology, they can jus­tify their actions in terms of the goal of a better world. Nazism and

Marxism are two exam­ples of ideologies underlying totalitarian rule.

 An authoritarian autocracy is not necessarily better or worse than a totalitarian autocracy. For example, authoritarian autocrats often plunder their countries'

wealth, living in splendor while the people they rule may starve. Because totalitarian autocracies are generally based on ideology, totalitarian leaders are often far

less interested in wealth for themselves and are more interested in seeing that individuals in their society share their ideology. Thus, in a totali ­tarian autocracy,

people can be better off financially but have fewer personal freedoms.
 Forms of Government

 Autocracy and power. An autocracy is a government that exists independently of the will of its citizens. It may or may not act contrary to
the wishes of those it governs. It is important to note that in an autocracy, the people have limited means of calling the government to
account. Its right to rule does not depend on majority support but derives from the power that for authoritarian autocracies can be an end
in itself. However, even in an autocracy, a leader who has lost the support of the people may find it difficult to stay in power.

 Whereas for authoritarian autocracies power is an end in itself and they need claim no other justification, for totalitarian autocra ­cies the
power is nearly always a means to a higher ideological end. There generally is some belief that the ruling elite possesses the "best
brains," the "best blood," the "highest political insight," and the "capacity to rule."

 Autocrats do not expect people to know what is good for them; they tell the people what is best and hope the people will believe it. If the
people do not believe it, the autocrats can try to do what is good for them anyway. Of course, they can also listen to the people and carry
out popular wishes, either because they believe that is the right thing to do or because they fear an uprising or a coup. Thus, we can have
autocra­cies that are responsive to the general will. They remain autocracies because the decision to be responsive rests with the ruler, not
the people.
 Forms of Government
 Characteristics of an Autocracy. The central characteristic of the totalitarian autocracies that came into power after World War I was their policy of

controlling the total lives of individual and private groups. They employed whatever devices they could to make possible the effective control by the state of

all social activity. The sphere of private freedom which democracy attempts to maximize is restricted by totalitarianism. Totalitarian government attempts to

regulate all of life for state ends. Capital and labor, press, religion, family and fraternal organizations, work and play, individuals and society – all are subject

to strict controls designed to promote the general welfare and enhance the power and prestige of the state.

 Loyalty to the Party and the State. Totalitarian autocracies demand complete loyalty and obedience to the party and the state. Fascist theory glorified

and exalted the state. Some forms of communism exalt the social revolution and require of the individual complete dedication to the objectives of the

Communist Party. But under both systems, the political party has direct control of the government and is determined to carry out the policies of the

communist Party. Both fascism and totalitarian communism demand that individuals where there is any conflict, subordinate their interests to those of the

party and the state.

 Rule by Leaders. Democracy emphasizes constitutionalism and rule by law; an autocracy is characterized less by the rule of law and more by the rule of

leaders. Until 1215, England was a complete autocracy and no rule of law limited the ruler's power. In that year, England adopted the Magna Carta, or "great

charter," which forced King John to agree that free men had rights and liberties that could not be trampled on. After King John accepted the Magna Carta, his

rights were limited, and England took a step from autocracy to democracy. autocracies differ from one another, and so do countries. However, where the

power of the autocracy is strong and the ruler or ruling party is unresponsive to the wishes of the citizens, the autocracy can change the political rules to

meet the purposes of the moment; no law or established procedure is permitted to meet the purposes of the moment; no law or established procedure is

permitted to interfere with the continued existence and absolute rule of the power holders. Under such circumstances, life, liberty, and property are

insecure, for a person may be found guilty on false charges without any genuine trial.
 Forms of Government
 One-Party Monopoly. Autocracy desires a monopoly on control; it generally tolerates the organized opposition, but it sometimes makes
use of a political party. The one highly disciplined party that exists may have begun as a traditional political group struggling for
parliamentary control. Once in power, however, it loses its private character and becomes the official control agency of the state. The
purposes it serves are very different from those served by parties in a democracy. It offers the people no alternatives and it gives them no
opportunity to participate in the formulation of public policy. Its purpose is to serve the organizational needs of autocratic leaders and their
followers. It provides for close contact between the rulers and the people, for the dissemination of the party line, and the control and
regimentation of the people in the interest of the rulers. It may, as in China, possess a legal monopoly on the power to nominate
candidates. Regardless of its legal position, the state party carries out the will of the autocratic leaders and prevents the people from
forming a legal opposition party to challenge the present rulers. Thus the party becomes in practice synonymous with the state; its
personnel, policies, and programs become those of the state.

 A Controlled Press. If a leader is to maintain control without resorting to elections, she or he often finds it necessary to control the press
and the other media to ensure popular support for the regime. Propaganda is the product of the state controlling the press and structuring
the flow of information to the people to make the state look good. Totalitarian autocracies often employ an elaborate propaganda machine
designed to secure mass support through intellectual conformity. The people are denied the privilege of hearing any other side of an issue.
For these reasons, autocracies often have strong public support, but without a free press and freedom of expression for individuals, it is
difficult to say whether that support would exist if people were offered a wider range of choices.
 Forms of Government
 Communism, Fascism, and Autocracy. When thinking of autocracy, we often think of communism and fascism because the terms
communism and fascist Nazism have sometimes been used synonymously with totalitarian autocracy. This is somewhat misleading
because communism and fascism are not types of government. Rather, they are different systems of social, economic, and political theory
that have produced totalitarian governments of a similar character. The differences between them are largely matters of detail and
ideology, but as we stated at the beginning of the chapter, ideological differences are important.

 Under communism, totalitarianism is meant to be temporary, and rule by the Communist Party is said to be a transition toward a higher
stage of society in which "the State will wither away" because true equality and freedom have been achieved and totalitar­ian rule no
longer has any function. Fascism, originally developed as an ideology to combat communism, does not see itself as a mere stage; it sees
itself as a complete system capable of withstanding all assaults.

 The development of fascism in reaction to communism shows the problem that ideologies present to society. The goals of communism
sound noble, but when that ideology conflicts with a democratic ideology, one or the other must give. In the 1930s, communist ideologists
argued that the democratic ideology must give. Once one group in a democracy no longer accepts the democratic ideology, it becomes
more and more difficult for other groups to accept the limitations democratic ideology places on them.
 Key points

 The five primary functions of government are maintaining internal order and external security, ensuring justice,
safeguarding individual freedoms, regulating individuals’ actions, and promoting the general welfare.

 Two primary forms of government are democracy and autocracy.

 Three distinguishing characteristics of a democ­racy are freedom of speech, effective representa­tion of the people,
and free elections.

 The democratic concept of the individual is that he or she is rational, equal to all others, and primary.

 Common justifications for an autocracy include the repressiveness of markets, the need for a temporary caretaker,
and the lack of the requirements for a democracy.

 Four characteristics of an autocracy include loyalty to the party and state, rule by leaders, one­party monopoly, and
a controlled press.