Tef 2

Telecommunication Fundamentals
Unit - II
Presented by
Manish Singh Ranawat
Jay Purohit
Pankaj Kumar
Giriraj Patidar
Linear Codes
• A linear code is defined such that any two codewords can be
added using modulo-2 arithmetic to produce another
codeword within the code. In an (n, k) linear code, the first k
bits are identical to the message bits, while the remaining
(n-k) bits are parity bits generated from the message bits
according to a specific encoding rule. The parity bits are
computed as linear combinations of the message bits.
Error correcting methods
Error detection identifies when a transmission has been altered, leading to

the message being discarded or potentially corrected without needing a
retransmission. This process, called error correction, occurs without the
sender knowing the message was initially damaged. Upon detecting errors,
the system may either retransmit the original message or correct the
damaged frame using methods like Hamming codes and forward error
correction.
• Hamming Codes
Hamming codes are used for single-bit error correction. They involve
adding check bits (parity bits) to the message at specific locations. The
total message length includes both data and check bits, and the difference
in bit positions between two codewords is known as the Hamming
distance, which helps locate and correct errors.
Forward Error Correction (FEC)
• Forward Error Correction (FEC) is a technique where transmitted data
includes both the actual data and additional check bits. These check bits
allow the receiver to detect and correct errors without needing
retransmission. FEC is particularly useful in simplex communication
channels or systems with large delays, where retransmission is
impractical.
• In an FEC system, data is encoded so that the receiver can correct errors
on its own. This method is effective for correcting errors in environments
where errors occur infrequently or in bursts. FEC is favored in scenarios
requiring high data integrity and reliability.
Introduction
• This section explores key data link protocols. The first protocol
has been widely used in classical bit-oriented systems. The
second protocol is vital for connecting home computers to the
internet. The focus is on the medium access control (MAC)
sublayer, which is crucial for managing shared communication
channels. The MAC layer, standardized by IEEE, controls media
access, prevents transmission collisions, and handles station
addressing and error detection. It ensures fair access to the
transmission medium and supports various LAN topologies by
implementing specific access methods and addressing
recognition functions.
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol used in the Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
of the OSI model, as shown in Figure 3.2. Developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), HDLC supports
both half-duplex and full-duplex communication, point-to-point and
multi-point networks, and both switched and non-switched channels.
HDLC ensures synchronous, code-transparent data transmission,
with control information consistently positioned to minimize errors. It
also provides flow control, ensuring data is transmitted at a rate the
receiver can handle.
• There are two main HDLC implementations:
1. HDLC NRM (also known as SDLC): Features a primary station with one or
more secondary stations.
2. HDLC LAPB: A peer-to-peer, full-duplex protocol that supports complete data
transparency and is widely used in X.25 networks.
• HDLC uses a frame window concept to send multiple frames before receiving
confirmation, which is particularly useful in high-latency environments like
satellite communication.
• HDLC frames are categorized as:

• Information Frames: Transport data across the link.
• Supervisory Frames: Handle flow control and error recovery.
• Unnumbered Frames: Manage link initialization and termination.
• Key aspects of HDLC include stations and configurations, operational modes,
frame structure, commands, responses, and HDLC subsets like SDLC and LAPB.
HDLC Stations and Configurations
• HDLC specifies three types of stations for data link control:

1. Primary Station:
1. Acts as the controlling station in the network.
2. Manages data flow, controls other stations, and handles error
recovery.
2. Secondary Station:
1. Operates under the control of the primary station.
2. Only responds when prompted by the primary station.
3. Combined Station:
1. Functions as both a primary and secondary station.
2. Can send and receive commands and responses independently.
HDLC Configurations
• HDLC defines three types of configurations:
1. Unbalanced Configuration:
1. Includes a primary station and one or more secondary stations.
2. Can operate in full-duplex or half-duplex, and supports both
point-to-point and multi-point networks.
2. Balanced Configuration:
1. Consists of two combined stations.
2. Both stations have equal control and can initiate communication.
3. Symmetrical Configuration:
1. Similar to balanced but allows for more complex network setups.
HDLC Operational Modes
•Normal Response Mode (NRM):
•Primary station controls communication.
•Secondary station can only respond when permitted by the primary.
•Used in unbalanced configurations.
•Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM):

•Secondary station can initiate communication without waiting for permission.
•Reduces overhead but requires an idle channel for half-duplex.
•Primary station manages error recovery and link control.
•Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM):

•Combined stations communicate without needing permission.
•Suitable for full-duplex operation, allowing free communication.
HDLC Non-Operational Modes
•Normal Disconnected Mode (NDM):

•Secondary station is logically disconnected from the link.
•Asynchronous Disconnected Mode (ADM):

•Similar to NDM but allows asynchronous communication.
•Initialization Mode (IM):

•Used when the secondary station's data link control needs resetting or
parameter exchange.
HDLC Frame Structure
HDLC frames are units of data transmitted between stations. The structure of an HDLC frame
includes the following fields:
1.Flag Field (F):

•Marks the start and end of the frame with the sequence 01111110.
•Ensures the link remains active by transmitting continuous flags between frames.
•Uses bit-stuffing to differentiate data from flags.
2.Address Field (A):

•Identifies the station involved in the transmission.
•In unbalanced configurations, it refers to the secondary station; in balanced
configurations, it contains the destination or sender's address.
3. Control Field (C):
•Manages the data flow and control functions.

•Formats include:
•Information Transfer Format: Transmits end-user data.
•Supervisory Format: Manages control functions like acknowledgments and
retransmissions.
•Unnumbered Format: Handles link initialization, disconnection, and other control
tasks.
4. Poll/Final Bit (P/F):
•Located in the control field, it facilitates communication between primary and

secondary stations.
•The primary station polls; the secondary station responds with data or status.
5. Information Field (I):
•Contains the actual data being transmitted.

•Only present when the Information Transfer Format is used.
6. Frame Check Sequence (FCS):
•Contains a 16-bit or 32-bit cyclic redundancy check for error

detection.

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Telecommunication Fundamentals

Error detection identifies when a transmission has been altered, leading to

• HDLC frames are categorized as:

• HDLC specifies three types of stations for data link control:

•Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM):

•Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM):

•Normal Disconnected Mode (NDM):

•Asynchronous Disconnected Mode (ADM):

•Initialization Mode (IM):

1.Flag Field (F):

2.Address Field (A):

•Manages the data flow and control functions.

4. Poll/Final Bit (P/F):

•Located in the control field, it facilitates communication between primary and

•Contains the actual data being transmitted.

6. Frame Check Sequence (FCS):

•Contains a 16-bit or 32-bit cyclic redundancy check for error

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