BASICS OF ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

MODULE-3
Module 3 syllabus
 INTRODUCTION

Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the

study of flow and control of electrons and the study of
their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases, and
semiconductors, and with devices using such electrons.
 The device which control the flow of electron is called as
Electronic devices.
 The motion of electrons through a conductor gives us
electric current.
 INTRODUCTION

 Electrical deals with the flow of charge through metal

conductors.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defined

electronics as that field of science and engineering which deals
with electron devices and their utilisation.

Electronics deals with micro and milli range of voltage, current

and power whereas electrical deal with high voltages and power
(100v,230v,1Kw).
 Electronics : Applications

 Communication :-Telegraphy, telephony, fax, television,

radio & mobile communication, internet
 Entertainment :- radio and tv broadcasting, cable TV, music
players, video gaming, social media
 Defence :- RADAR, computer controlled guns, cryptography
 Industrial :– flow detectors, digital multimeters, robotics,
power meters, welding, power stations
 Medical –EEG,ECG,CT SCAN,MRI scan, Telemedicine.
 Instrumentation- CRO, signal generators, multimeter
Electronic Components

C LASSIF IC ATION
RESISTOR
RESISTOR
Capacitors
Capacitors
• Capacitor passes ac signals and blocks dc signals.
• Widely used in signal generation, tuning, timing, filtering etc.
• Unit for capacitance is Farad (F).
• Units such as microfarad (10-6 F), nanofarad (10-9 F), and picofarad (10-
12
F) are generally used.
• Symbol is
Classification of Capacitors
Inductors
Classification of Inductors
PN JUNCTION DIODE
Energy band diagram of Metal , Insulator and Semiconductor
Classification of Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor Properties
Extrinsic Semiconductor
N - type semiconductor
P - type semiconductor
Formation of PN Junction
Formation of PN Junction
Formation of PN Junction
PN JUNCTION DIODES
FORWARD BIASED PN junction
Forward VI Characteristics
REVERSE BIASED PN junction
REVERSE VI Characterestics
VI characteristics of Diode
Ideal Diode
Reverse Breakdown
ZENER BREAKDOWN
Avalanche Breakdown
Zener Breakdown Avalanche Breakdown
The process in which the electrons move The process of applying high voltage and
across the barrier from V.B of p-type increasing the no of free electrons or
material to the C. B of n-type material is electric current in semiconductors is
known as Zener breakdown. called an avalanche breakdown.
The valence electrons are pulled into The valence electrons are pushed to
conduction due to the high electric field conduction due to the energy imparted
in the narrow depletion region. by accelerated electrons, which gain
their velocity due to their collision with
other atoms.
Observed for Vz of 5 to 6 volts. Observed for Vz greater than 6 volts.

The increase in temperature decreases The increase in temperature increases

the breakdown voltage. the breakdown voltage.

It occurs in diodes that are highly doped It occurs in diodes that are lightly doped.
 ZENER DIODE

Zener diode is similar to the ordinary

PN junction diode. But, normally it is
operated in the reverse breakdown
condition.
This diode is a specially designed,
highly doped PN junction diode.
Silicon is used to construct a Zener
diode since it can withstand high
temperature.
Zener in forward biased operates as
normal pn junction.
 ZENER DIODE

 A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode.

 When the voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode is reversed

and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the
junction breaks down and the current flows in the reverse direction.
 This voltage remains constant irrespective of the current through

diode. This effect is known as the Zener Effect. This is used in

voltage regulator design.
 Breakdown can occur due to either avalanche effect or Zener effect

or combination of both.
 Zener Diode: Important features

 Zener voltage (Vz): The reverse breakdown voltage at which

breakdown occurs.
 Maximum Zener Current (Iz max.): The maximum value of current
below which Zener diode works properly.

 Minimum Zener current (Iz-min.): The minimum current that keeps

the diode in breakdown.

 Power rating: The maximum power, which may be dissipated by the

Zener diode, is given by the product of voltage across the diode with
the current flowing through it.
Zener Voltage Regulator
• Used to maintain constant DC output voltage.
• A Zener diode provides constant output voltage when operated in the
reverse breakdown region irrespective of the current through it and
variations in the applied voltage.
Zener Voltage Regulator
• Here, zener is connected in parallel to the load resistor, hence it is also
called shunt regulator.

• Rs is known as series current limiting resistor, which is used to limit current

in the circuit.

• Output is taken across the load resistor RL.

• Ensure that Vs is always greater than zener voltage to keep the zener in the
breakdown region.
Line regulation with varying i/p
voltage
• Here the load resistance RL is kept fixed and the input voltage Vs is varied within
the limits.

 As the input voltage Vs increases, Is also

increases.
 This increases the current through Zener (Iz)
thereby keeping the load current (IL) constant,
thus output voltage is kept constant.
 As the input voltage Vs decreases, Is also
decreases, this decreases only the Zener
current not the load current thus keeping
output voltage constant.
Load regulation with varying load current
• Vs is fixed and IL is varied by varying load resistance RL.
• In the absence of load resistor, the o/p voltage is maximum VNL.
• When load is connected, voltage falls by small amount.
• For a given load current load voltage is designated as VFL
RGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY
AC & DC
 Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which
periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude
continuously with time in contrast to direct current (DC)
which flows only in one direction.
 Alternating current is the form in which electric power is
delivered to businesses and residences, and it is the form of
electrical energy that consumers typically use when they
plug kitchen appliances, televisions, fans and electric lamps
into a wall socket.
 A common source of DC power is a battery cell.
 AC and DC are often used to mean
simply alternating and direct currents respectively.
AC & DC
 AC - direction and magnitude of current is varying
 DC – direction and magnitude of current is constant.
 REGULATED DC POWER SUPPLY
 Energy is available in the form
of alternating voltage(230V,50
Hz) from wall sockets.
 To ensure proper working of
components/equipments we
need dc.
 Regulated dc power supply
converts ac power to dc power.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DC POWER SUPPLY

AC DC
DC POWER SUPPLY
 Transformer :-
- Available energy is alternating voltage of 230V,50 Hz supply but most electronic devices work in the

voltage range (0-20V). The high input voltage is converted to 0-20 V ac using a step-down transformer.

- It also acts as an isolator – provide protection of remaining circuitry from 230V,50Hz ac power supply

 Rectifier
- An electronic circuit which converts pure ac to pulsating dc (dc and ac ripples are present). It is then passed to

filter.

 Filters

- Used for removing ac components (ripples) from the output of rectifier

 Voltage Regulator

- Last stage of power supply and so it maintains the output of a power supply at a constant voltage level

irrespective of changes in load current or input voltage.

RECTIFIERS

 A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts an Alternating

Current (AC) into a pulsating Direct Current (DC) by using one or
more P-N junction diodes.
 The rectifiers are mainly classified into two types:
 Half wave rectifier
 Full wave rectifier
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
 As the name suggests, the
half wave rectifier is a type of
rectifier which converts half of the
AC input signal (positive half
cycle) into pulsating DC output
signal and the remaining half
signal (negative half cycle) is
blocked or lost.
 In half wave rectifier circuit, we use only a single diode.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

 Full wave rectifier can be constructed in 2 ways.

 The first method makes use of a centre tapped transformer
and 2 diodes. This arrangement is known as
Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier.
 The second method uses a normal transformer with 4 diodes
arranged as a bridge. This arrangement is known as a
Bridge Rectifier.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
 A Full wave rectifier is a circuit arrangement which makes use of
both half cycles of input alternating current (AC) and converts
them to direct current (DC).
 In Half wave rectifiers, it makes use of only one-half cycle of the
input alternating current. Thus a full wave rectifier is much more
efficient than a half wave rectifier.
 This process of converting both half cycles of the input supply
(alternating current) to direct current (DC) is termed full wave
rectification.
CENTER TAPPED FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
 Most frequently used rectifier.
 It consists of four diodes connected in the form of a bridge.
 Two leads of the bridge network are connected to the secondary
coil of transformer and other two leads of bridge network are
connected to load resistor.
 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
WORKING
 During the first half cycle of the input
voltage, the upper end of the
transformer secondary winding is
positive with respect to the lower end.

 Then, diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and current flows through
D1 arm, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back flowing through
D3 arm.
 During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4 are reverse
biased and current is not allowed to flow in those arms.
 The flow of current is indicated by solid arrows in the figure above.
 FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
WORKING
 During the second half cycle of the
input voltage, the lower end of the
transformer secondary winding is
positive with respect to the upper
end.

 Diodes D2 and D4 become forward biased and current flows through

arm D2, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back to the
source flowing through arm D4.
 The flow of current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure.
 The direction of flow of current through the load resistance
RL remains the same during both half cycles of the input supply
voltage.
FWR OUTPUT WAVEFORMS
CAPACITOR FILTER
 The o/p of the rectifier contains dc as well as ac
component.
 The output of rectifier has to be smoothened.
 Filters are used to removes ac component.
 The process of removing or minimising the ac
component (ripples) in the rectifier output is known as
filtering.
 A typical shunt capacitor filter with a capacitor (C) and
a load resistor (RL) is shown here.
SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER

Output waveform of full wave

rectified and filtered circuit
SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER
 Capacitor connected in parallel to the load resistor can
remove ac components.
 capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the
frequency.

 For AC signal, the frequency is high so the capacitive

reactance is low. In case of DC signal frequency is 0Hz, and
the capacitive reactance to DC signal is high.
 Hence AC bypassed through the capacitor while DC
transmitted to load.
SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER
 The rectifier’s output voltage is given across the terminals of a
capacitor. Whenever the voltage of the rectifier increases, the
capacitor will be charged to the highest rectifier voltage value that
is denoted with Vm, and when the voltage of the rectifier starts to
reduce, the capacitor starts discharging through the load.
 The voltage across the load will reduce a little only because the next
peak voltage occurs instantaneously to charge the capacitor.
 This procedure will repeat many times and there is only slight
ripples at the output as shown in the figure.
ZENER VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Used to maintain constant DC output voltage.
 A Zener diode provides constant output voltage when operated
in the reverse breakdown region irrespective of the current
through it and variations in the applied voltage.
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Transistor & its Terminals

 A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals . Since it amplifies signals it is an Active device.
 There are typically three electrical leads or doped regions in a
transistor:- Emitter (E), base(B) & collector(C)
 The pn junction between emitter and base -> emitter -base junction
or emitter junction.
 pn junction between collector and base -> collector- base junction or
collector junction
 BJT (BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR)

There are two types of transistors- NPN transistor &

PNP transistor
 For NPN transistor it has two n regions separated by p region. For PNP transistor it

has two p regions separated by n region.

Since it is a semiconductor device it has both majority and minority carrier

currents so it is named as bipolar.

The arrow in the symbol indicates the direction of flow of conventional current

in the emitter with forward biasing applied to the emitter-base junction. The
only difference between the NPN and PNP transistor is in the direction of the
current.
 Terminals of a transistor

Emitter :-
 Region which supplies majority carriers.
 Emitter is highly doped, it can supply large no. of carriers.

 The emitter is always connected in forward bias with respect to

the base so that it supplies the majority charge carrier to the base
which further reaches the collector.
 Terminals of a transistor

Collector:-
 region which collects major portion of carriers supplied by emitter
 Collector is moderately doped
 It is large in size to withstand the heat generated in collecting
carriers and to transfer to surroundings
 The collector-base junction is always in reverse bias.
Base :-
 the region which transports the carriers from emitter to collector.

 Some of the injected carriers from emitter are lost by recombination

at base which in turn reduces current flow.

 To reduce recombination rate base is lightly doped and has narrow

width.
 Transistor Action

The emitter-base circuit is in forward biased and offer low

resistance to the circuit. The collector-base junction is in

reverse bias and offers higher resistance to the circuit.

The transistor is a device which transfers a signal from low

resistance region to high resistance region which constitutes
terms transfer resistor and hence the name transistor.
 MODES OF OPERATION OF BJT

The transistor has two junctions(emitter and collector

junctions )which can be biased in different ways.
Based on biasing of the junctions, transistors have four

distinct regions(modes) of operation.

 MODES OF OPERATION OF BJT

 Active mode – here the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-
base junction is reverse biased. The transistor is in the active region and the
collector current is depend on the emitter current. The transistor, which operates
in this region is used for amplification.
 Saturation mode- both the junctions are forward biased. The transistor is in
saturation and the collector current becomes independent of the base current.
The transistors act like a closed switch.
 Cut off mode- Both the junctions are reverse biased. The emitter does not
supply the majority charge carrier to the base and carriers are not collected by
the collector. Thus the transistors act like a open switch.
 Reverse active - The emitter-base junction is in reverse bias and the collector-
base junction is forward biased. As the collector is lightly doped as compared to
the emitter junction it does not supply the majority charge carrier to the base.
Hence poor transistor action is achieved.
 Current flow in BJT

 Consider a PNP transistor in active mode. Such that VEB is the

forward biased voltage across emitter junction and Vcb is the
reverse biased voltage across collector junction.
 Current flow in BJT
Due to forward biasing of emitter junction holes(majority carriers)
in emitter are injected from emitter to base which is called as hole
diffusion current(Ipe) and similarly the majority carriers (electrons) in
base are injected to emitter called as electron diffusion current(Ine).
Total emitter current
Ie=Ipe+Ine.
Since emitter is heavily doped ,hole injection current (Ipe)is very
large compared to the electron injection current(Ine).
Ie=Ipe.
 Injected holes diffuse through base and few of them is lost in
recombining with the electrons in the base and the remaining
holes will reach collector to form collector current Ipc. Due to
reverse biasing of collector junction collector does not oppose the
movement of holes.
 Current flow in BJT

Due to reverse bias of collector junction minority carrier

current called as reverse current denoted as Ico flows
through the collector junction. So total collector current :-
Ic=Ipc+ Ico
The recombination of holes at the base with electrons in the
base region causes a base current IB
Base current can be written in IB=IE - IC

IE = I B + I C
 Transistor configurations

Since transistor is a three-terminal device, it can be

connected in 3 different configurations.
Based on the common terminal between input and output
these configurations are
 Common Base configuration(CB)
 Common Emitter Configuration(CE)
 Common Collector configuration(CC)
 Common Base configuration
 Input is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is
taken across base and collector terminal. Here the base is common
to both input and output so it is called as common base
configuration. It is also called as grounded base configuration since
base is grounded.

 Input voltage is VEB

 Output voltage is VCB
 Input current is IE
 Output current is IC

 Current gain of common base configuration is the ratio of output

current to input current and is represented by α
 Common Emitter configuration

Input is applied between base and

emitter terminals and output is taken
across collector and emitter terminal.
Here the emitter is common to both
input and output so it is called as
common emitter
Input voltage is VBE Output voltage is
VCE
Input current is base current IB Output
current is Ic
Current gain – it is the ratio of output
current to input current. And is
 Common Collector configuration

Input is applied between base and collector terminals and output is

taken across emitter and collector terminal.
Here the collector is common to both input and output so it is called
as common collector.
This kind of arrangement is usually recognized as a Voltage Follower
or Emitter Follower circuit.
 Input voltage is VBC

 Output voltage is VCE

 Input current is base current IB

 Output current is IE

 Current gain – it is the ratio of output current to input current. And is

represented by γ
Comparison of BJT configurations
Relationships between current gains of CE,CB & CC configurations
Problems
 Characteristics of Common Emitter(CE)

Transistor characteristics are useful for analysing behaviour of

transistors.
Chara relate transistor voltage and current.

There are two types of transistor characteristics:-

 Input characteristics
 Output characteristics
The amplifier circuit connected in common emitter configuration is

one of the important and commonly used circuits.

 Characteristics of Common Emitter(CE)

CE configuration provides voltage gain combined with a moderate

current gain, as well as a medium input and a medium output

impedance – Good all round circuit.

Input characteristics:-It is a plot of input current versus input

voltage keeping output voltage constant.

Output characteristics:- it is a plot of output current versus output

voltage keeping input current constant.

 Input characteristics

The variation of emitter current(IB) with Base-

Emitter voltage(VBE), keeping Collector Emitter

voltage(VCE) constant.
 Input characteristics

Dynamic input resistance-it is defined as the ratio of change

in input voltage VBE to the corresponding change in input
current IB maintaining output voltage VCE constant.
 Input characteristics

Input characteristics of CE configuration is similar to forward

biased pn junction(diode).
If the input voltage is less than cut in voltage the emitter cannot

inject carriers into base so no recombination in the base region and

so the base current is zero.
If the base emitter voltage exceeds cut in voltage carriers are

injected to base and then recombination occurs and I B starts

flowing.
 Input characteristics

As Vce increases the curve shift outward due to

early effect(as the reverse bias voltage across
collector base junction increases the depletion
layer width at collector base region increases.
Since base area is lightly doped the depletion
layer growth will be more towards base. So
effective base width decreases and hence no. of
recombination at base reduces which causes a
decrease in base current.
For same value of VBE the input current (IB) is
reduced for higher VCE values.
 Output characteristics

Output Characteristics-The
variation of collector current(IC)
with Collector-emitter
voltage(VCE), keeping the emitter
current(IB) constant.
For this, set IB as constant.
Then VCE is varied by changing
power supply voltage and
corresponding collector currents
are noted.
 Output characteristics

The output characteristics of CE configuration is divided into

3 regions.
 Output characteristics

Cut-off region
 When base current is zero, a small collector current called leakage current I CEO flows.
 The region below IB=0 is called as cut off region.
 In this region, both emitter and collector junctions are reverse biased.
 The transistor act as an open switch here.
Active region
 A region of graph where output current is almost constant.
 Here emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse
biased.
Saturation region
 In this mode transistor has a very large value of current.

 The transistor is operated in this mode, when it is used as a closed switch.

 Both junctions are forward biased.

 Here, there is a large change in the collector current IC with a small change in VCE.
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