LIVING IN THE ENVIRONMENT, 18e

G. TYLER MILLER • SCOTT E. SPOOLMAN

8
Aquatic Biodiversity

©©Cengage
CengageLearning
Learning2015
2015
Core Case Study: Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs?

• Biodiversity
• Coral reefs form in clear, warm coastal
waters in tropical areas
– Tiny animals (polyps) and algae have a
mutualistic relationship
– Polyps secrete calcium carbonate shells,
which become coral reefs

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Core Case Study: Why Should We Care
about Coral Reefs? (cont’d.)

• Provide important ecological and

economic services
• Vulnerable to damage
– Warmer ocean temperatures leading to coral
bleaching
• Kills algae and thus the polyps
– Increasing ocean acidity

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Core Case Study: Why Should We Care about Coral Reefs? (cont’d.)

Fig. 8-1, p. 168

8-1 What Is the General Nature of
Aquatic Systems?

• Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life

zones cover almost three-fourths of the
earth’s surface, with oceans dominating
the planet
• Key factors determining biodiversity in
aquatic systems
– Temperature, dissolved oxygen content,
availability of food, and access to light and
nutrients necessary for photosynthesis
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Most of the Earth Is Covered with
Water

• Saltwater – 71% of the earth’s surface

• Global ocean divided into four areas
– Atlantic
– Pacific
– Arctic
– Indian
• Freshwater – 2.2% of the earth’s surface

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Most of the Earth Is Covered with
Water (cont’d.)

• Aquatic life zones

– Saltwater life zones (marine life zones)
• Oceans and estuaries
• Coastlands and shorelines
• Coral reefs
• Mangrove forests
– Freshwater life zones
• Lakes, rivers, and streams
• Inland wetlands
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Ocean hemisphere Land–ocean hemisphere

Fig. 8-2, p. 169

Aquatic Species Drift, Swim, Crawl, and
Cling

• Plankton – drifting
– Phytoplankton
• Primary producers for most aquatic food webs
– Ultraplankton
• Tiny photosynthetic bacteria
– Zooplankton
• Secondary consumers
• Single-celled to large invertebrates like jellyfish

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Aquatic Species Drift, Swim, Crawl, and
Cling (cont’d.)

• Nekton
– Strong swimmers – fish, turtles, whales
• Benthos
– Bottom dwellers – oysters, sea stars, clams,
lobsters, crabs
• Decomposers
– Mostly bacteria

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Aquatic Species Drift, Swim, Crawl, and
Cling (cont’d.)

• Key factors in the distribution of organisms

– Temperature
– Dissolved oxygen content
– Availability of food
– Availability of light and nutrients needed for
photosynthesis
• Turbidity
– Degree of cloudiness in water
– Inhibits photosynthesis
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8-2 Why Are Marine Aquatic Systems
Important?

• Saltwater ecosystems
– Provide major ecosystem and economic
services
– Are irreplaceable reservoirs of biodiversity

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Oceans Provide Vital Ecosystem and
Economic Services

• Estimated $12 trillion per year in goods

and services
• Three major life zones:
– Coastal zone
• Warm, nutrient rich, shallow; shore to edge of
continental shelf; usually high NPP from ample
sunlight and nutrients
– Open sea
– Ocean bottom
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 Natural Capital
Marine Ecosystems
Ecological Economic
Services Services
Oxygen Food
supplied through
photosynthesis Energy from
waves and tides
Water purification
Climate Pharmaceuticals
moderation
CO2 absorption Harbors and
transportation
Nutrient cycling routes
Reduced storm
Recreation and
impact (mangroves,
tourism
barrier islands,
coastal wetlands) Employment
Biodiversity:
Minerals
species and habitats
Fig. 8-5, p. 170
High tide Coastal Open
Low tide Depth in
Zone Sea
Sea level meters

Photosynthesis
Estuarine Euphotic
Zone Zone

Continental
shelf

Twilight
Bathyal Zone

Water temperature
drops rapidly between Abyssal
Zone

Darkness
the euphotic zone and
the abyssal zone in an
area called the
thermocline.

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Water temperature (°C) Fig. 8-6, p. 171
Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are Highly
Productive

• Estuaries
– Where rivers meet the sea
• Coastal wetlands
– Coastal land covered with water all or part of
the year
• Seawater mixes with freshwater
• Very productive ecosystems with high
nutrient levels
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Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands Are Highly
Productive (cont’d.)

• Examples:
– River mouths
– Inlets
– Bays
– Sounds
– Salt marshes
– Sea-grass beds
– Mangrove forests

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Fig. 8-7, p. 172
Fig. 8-8, p. 172
Fig. 8-9, p. 172
Rocky and Sandy Shores Host Different
Types of Organisms

• Intertidal zone
– Area of shore between high and low tides
– Rocky shore
– Sandy shore, barrier beach
• Organism adaptations necessary to deal
with daily salinity and moisture changes
• What is the importance of sand dunes in
this type of ecosystem?
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 Sea star Hermit
Rocky Shore Beach crab Shore crab

High tide

Periwinkle

Sea urchin Anemone

Mussel

Low tide
Sculpin
Barnacles

Sea lettuce
Kelp
Beach flea
Monterey flatworm

Peanut worm Tiger

Nudibranch beetle
Barrier Beach Clam
Blue crab
Dwarf
High tide
olive

Sandpiper
Silversides Ghost
Low tide shrimp
Mole shrimp

White sand Sand Moon

macoma Stepped Art
dollar snail
Fig. 8-11, p. 180
Coral Reefs Are Amazing Centers
of Biodiversity

• Marine equivalent of tropical rain forests

• Reefs are being destroyed and damaged
worldwide
• Ocean acidification
– Oceans absorb CO2
– CO2 reacts with ocean water to form a weak
acid that decreases levels of carbonate ions
(CO32-) needed to form coral

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The Open Sea and the Ocean Floor Host a
Variety of Species

• Three vertical zones of the open sea

– Euphotic zone
• Phytoplankton
• Nutrient levels low
• Dissolved oxygen levels high
• Upwelling brings nutrients from below
– Bathyal zone
• Dimly lit
• Zooplankton and smaller fishes
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The Open Sea and the Ocean Floor Host a
Variety of Species (cont’d.)
– Abyssal zone
• Dark and cold
• High levels of nutrients
• Little dissolved oxygen
• Deposit feeders
• Filter feeders
• NPP low in the open sea
– Except in upwelling areas

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8-3 How Have Human Activities Affected
Marine Ecosystems?

• Human activities
– Threaten aquatic biodiversity
– Disrupt ecosystem and economic services
provided by saltwater systems

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Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Marine Systems

• Major threats to marine systems include:

– Coastal development
– Overfishing; use of fishing trawlers
– Runoff of nonpoint source pollution
– Point source pollution
– Habitat destruction
– Introduction of invasive species
– Pollution of coastal wetlands and estuaries

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Natural Capital Degradation
Major Human Impacts on Marine Ecosystems and Coral
Reefs
Marine Ecosystems Coral Reefs

Half of coastal wetlands lost to Ocean warming

agriculture and urban development
Rising ocean acidity
Over one-fifth of mangrove forests
lost to agriculture, aquaculture, Soil erosion
and development Algae growth from
Beaches eroding due to fertilizer runoff
development and rising sea levels Bleaching
Ocean bottom habitats degraded Rising sea levels
by dredging and trawler fishing Increased UV exposure
At least 20% of coral reefs Damage from anchors
severely damaged and 25–33% and from fishing and
more threatened diving Fig. 8-12, p. 176
Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay – an
Estuary in Trouble

• Largest estuary in the U.S.

– Polluted since 1960
• Large population increase
• Point and nonpoint sources raised
pollution
• Phosphate and nitrate levels too high
• Excess sediments from runoff and
decreased vegetation
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Case Study: The Chesapeake Bay – an
Estuary in Trouble (cont’d.)

• Oysters, a keystone species, greatly

reduced
• 1983: Chesapeake Bay Program
– Integrated coastal management with local,
state, and federal governments, as well as
citizens’ groups
• 2008 update:
– 25 years and $6 billion
– Program failed to meet goals
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Drainage basin

No oxygen

Low concentrations
of oxygen

Fig. 8-13, p. 177

8-4 Why Are Freshwater Ecosystems
Important?

• Freshwater ecosystems
– Provide major ecosystem and economic
services
– Are irreplaceable reservoirs of biodiversity

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Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others

• Standing (lentic) bodies of freshwater

– Lakes
– Ponds
– Inland wetlands
• Flowing (lotic) systems of freshwater
– Streams
– Rivers

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Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others (cont’d.)

• Lakes have four zones based on depth

and distance from shore
– Littoral zone
• Near shore where rooted plants grow; high
biodiversity
• Turtles, frogs, crayfish, some fish
– Limnetic zone
• Open, sunlight area away from shore; main
photosynthetic zone
• Some larger fish
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Water Stands in Some Freshwater
Systems and Flows in Others (cont’d.)
– Profundal zone
• Deep water too dark for photosynthesis
• Low oxygen levels
• Some fish
– Benthic zone
• Decomposers
• Detritus feeders
• Some fish
• Nourished primarily by dead matter

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Natural Capital

Freshwater Systems
Ecological Economic
Services Services

Climate Food
moderation

Nutrient cycling Drinking water

Waste treatment
Irrigation water
Flood control
Hydroelectricity
Groundwater
recharge
Transportation
Habitats for many corridors
species

Genetic Recreation
resources and
biodiversity Employment
Scientific
information
Fig. 8-14, p. 178
 Painted Blue-winged
turtle teal

Green
frog
Muskrat

Pond
snail
Littoral zone Plankton

Diving
beetle Northern
pike

Yellow
perch Bloodworms
Fig. 8-16, p. 179
Some Lakes Have More Nutrients
Than Others

• Oligotrophic lakes
– Low levels of nutrients and low NPP
– Very clear water
• Eutrophic lakes
– High levels of nutrients and high NPP
– Murky water with high turbidity
• Cultural eutrophication of lakes from
human input of nutrients
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 Stepped Art
Fig 8-15, 8-17; p. 179-180
Freshwater Streams and Rivers Carry
Large Volumes of Water

• Surface water
– Runoff
• Downward flow of water from mountains
• Three aquatic life zones
– Source zone
• Shallow, cold, clear, swiftly flowing
• High dissolved oxygen

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Freshwater Streams and Rivers Carry
Large Volumes of Water
– Transition zone
• Wider, deeper, warmer streams
• More turbid
• Less dissolved oxygen
– Floodplain zone
• Wide, deep rivers
• Broad, flat valleys

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 Lake
Rain and
Glacier
snow
Rapids
Waterfall
Tributary
Flood plain
Oxbow lake
Salt marsh
Delta Deposited
sediment

Ocean
Source Zone

Transition Zone

Water
Sediment
Floodplain Zone

Stepped Art
Fig. 8-18, p. 180
Case Study: River Deltas and Coastal
Wetlands

• Coastal deltas, mangrove forests, and

coastal wetlands provide natural protection
against storms
• Dams and levees reduce sediments in
deltas
– Subsidence of New Orleans
• Rising sea levels will inundate coastal
areas

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Fig. 8-19, p. 182
Fig. 8-20, p. 182
Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are Vital
Sponges

• Inland wetlands
– Lands located away from coasts that are
covered with freshwater all or part of the time
• Include:
– Marshes, swamps, prairie potholes,
floodplains, and arctic tundra

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Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are
Vital Sponges (cont’d.)

• Provide free ecosystem and economic

services
– Filter and degrade toxic wastes
– Reduce flooding and erosion
– Help to replenish streams and recharge
groundwater aquifers
– Biodiversity
– Food and timber
– Recreation areas
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© Cengage Learning 2015
Fig. 8-21, p. 184
8-5 How Have Human Activities Affected
Freshwater Ecosystems?

• Human activities
– Threaten and disrupt ecosystem and
economic services provided by freshwater
lakes, rivers, and wetlands

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Human Activities Are Disrupting and
Degrading Freshwater Systems

• Dams and canals restrict the flows of

rivers
– 40% of the world’s largest rivers
• Flood-control destroys aquatic habitats
and alters wetlands
• Cities and farms pollute water
• Many wetlands have been drained for
human purposes
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Three Big Ideas

• Water dominates the planet

– Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones
cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s
surface
• The earth’s aquatic systems provide
important ecosystem and economic
services

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Three Big Ideas (cont’d.)

• Human activities threaten biodiversity and

disrupt ecological and economic services
provided by aquatic systems

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Tying It All Together: Coral Reefs and
Sustainability

• Coral reefs:
– Thrive on solar energy
– Participate in nutrient cycling
– Sustain aquatic biodiversity
• In nature, everything is connected
• How can we can reduce harm to coral
reefs?

© Cengage Learning 2015