Cell Structure and

Function

28/11/16
Dr onyango k
Outline
• Levels of Cellular Organization &
function-Organelles, tissues, organs
& systems.
• Properties common to all cells
• Cell size and shape – why are cells so
small?
Cell Theory
1. All organisms consist of 1 or
more cells.
2. Cell is the smallest unit of
life.
3. All cells come from pre-
existing cells.
Cell Theory
All living things are made up of
cells.
Cells are the smallest working
units of all living things.
All cells come from preexisting
cells through cell division.
Cell Theory
Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of
cells.
2. Cells are the smallest living things.
3. Cells arise only from pre-existing
cells.

All cells today represent a continuous

line of descent from the first living
cells.
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Cell Theory
Cell size is limited.
-As cell size increases, it takes
longer for material to diffuse
from the cell membrane to
the interior of the cell.

Surface area-to-volume ratio:

as a cell increases in size, the
volume increases 10x faster
than the surface area
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 Cell Theory
All cells have certain structures in
common.

1. genetic material – in a nucleoid or

nucleus
2. cytoplasm – a semifluid matrix
3. plasma membrane – a phospholipid
bilayer

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Definition of Cell

A cell is the smallest unit that is

capable of performing life functions.
 Eukaryotic
Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
Most living organisms

Animal

http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/eukaryotic_cells.html
 “Typical” Animal Cell

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/images/cell.gif
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
-possess a membrane-bound nucleus
-are more complex than prokaryotic
cells
-compartmentalize many cellular
functions within organelles and the
endomembrane system
-possess a cytoskeleton for support
and to maintain cellular structure

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Eukaryotic Cells

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Eukaryotic Cells

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Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus
-stores the genetic material of the
cell in the form of multiple, linear
chromosomes
-surrounded by a nuclear
envelope composed of 2
phospholipid bilayers
-in chromosomes – DNA is
organized with proteins to form
chromatin
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Eukaryotic Cells

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Eukaryotic Cells

Ribosomes
-the site of protein synthesis in
the cell
-composed of ribosomal RNA
and proteins
-found within the cytosol of the
cytoplasm and attached to
internal membranes

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Cell Structure
All Cells have:
◦an outermost plasma
membrane
◦genetic material in the form
of DNA
◦cytoplasm with ribosomes
Cell Parts
Organelles
Cell Membrane
Outer membrane of
cell that controls
movement in and out
of the cell
Double layer
Made up of lipids and proteins and
is semipermeable
Contains numerous regulated ion
channels and transport proteins that
change the amounts of substances
moving across it.
Referred to as the plasma
membrane.
Surrounds nucleus and other
organelles.
About 7.5 nm (75 Å) thick
Major lipids are phospholipids such
as phosphatidylcholine and
phosphatidylethanolamine.
Hydrophilic ends of the molecules
are exposed to the aqueous
environment.
The hydrophobic ends meet in the
water-poor interior of the membrane.
Proteins in the cell membrane
include integral and peripheral
proteins
Proteins make up to about 50%
of the mass of the cell membrane
depending on the function.
Functions of the proteins include;
enzymes, ion pumps, channels,
carriers, receptors.
Hydrophobic portions of the
proteins are located in the interior
of the membrane,
The charged, hydrophilic portions
are located on the surfaces.
Peripheral proteins are attached to
the surfaces of the membrane in
various ways. eg glycosylated
forms of phosphatidylinositol.
The membranes are dynamic
structures, and their constituents
are being constantly renewed at
different rates.
 Some proteins are anchored to
the cytoskeleton, but others move
laterally in the membrane. For
example, receptors move in the
membrane and aggregate at sites
of endocytosis.
Underlying most cells is a thin, fuzzy
layer plus some fibrils that
collectively make up the basement
membrane or, more properly, the
basal lamina.
The basal lamina and, more
generally, the extracellular matrix are
made up of many proteins that hold
cells together, regulate their
development, and determine their
growth.
These include collagens, laminins
(see below), fibronectin, tenascin,
and proteoglycans
 Nucleus

Directs cell activities

Separated from cytoplasm by
nuclear membrane
Contains genetic material - DNA
 Nuclear Membrane
Surrounds nucleus
Made of two layers
Openings allow
material to enter
and leave nucleus

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Chromosomes
In nucleus
Made of DNA
Contain
instructions for
traits &
characteristics

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Nucleolus
Inside nucleus
Contains RNA to
build proteins

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
Cytoplasm
Gel-like
mixture
Surrounded by cell membrane
Contains hereditary material
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Moves materials
around in cell
Smooth type: lacks
ribosomes
Rough type (pictured):
ribosomes embedded
in surface

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Ribosomes
Each cell contains
thousands
Make proteins
Found on
ribosomes &
floating throughout
the cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Mitochondria
Produces energy through
chemical reactions –
breaking down fats &
carbohydrates
Controls level of water
and other materials in
cell
Recycles and
decomposes proteins,
fats, and carbohydrates
http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
Mitochondria ct.
Sausage -shaped .
Each has an outer membrane, an
intermembrane space, an inner
membrane, which is folded to form
shelves (cristae), and a central
matrix space.
The enzyme complexes
responsible for oxidative
phosphorylation are lined up on
the cristae.
The mitochondria have their own
genome.
There is much less DNA in the
mitochondrial genome than in the
nuclear genome and 99% of the
proteins in the mitochondria are the
products of nuclear genes.
Mitochondrial DNA is responsible for
certain key components of the
pathway for oxidative
phosphorylation.
Sperms contribute few, if any,
mitochondria to the zygote, so the
mitochondria come almost entirely
from the ovum and their inheritance
is almost exclusively maternal.
Mitochondria have no effective DNA
repair system, and the mutation
rate for mitochondrial DNA is over
10 times the rate for nuclear DNA.
 Golgi Bodies
Protein 'packaging
plant'
Move materials
within the cell
Move materials
out of the cell

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
 Lysosome
Digestive 'plant' for
proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates
Transports undigested
material to cell
membrane for removal
Cell breaks down if
lysosome structure
is disrupted.

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
lysosomes
The interior of lysosomes, is more acidic than the rest
of the cytoplasm, and external material such as
endocytosed bacteria as well as worn-out cell
components are digested in them.
When a lysosomal enzyme is congenitally absent, the
lysosomes become engorged with the material the
enzyme normally degrades.
This eventually leads to one of the lysosomal storage
diseases. For example, -galactosidase A deficiency
causes Fabry's disease, and -galactocerebrosidase
deficiency causes Gaucher's disease. These diseases
are rare, but they are serious and can be fatal.
Another example is the lysosomal storage disease
called Tay–Sachs disease, which causes mental
retardation and blindness.
Lysosomal storage
diseases
This eventually leads to one of the
lysosomal storage diseases. For
example,
galactosidase A deficiency causes
Fabry's disease,
galactocerebrosidase deficiency causes
Gaucher's disease.
These diseases are rare, but they are
serious and can be fatal.
Tay–Sachs disease, which causes
mental retardation and blindness.
Enzyme Substrate

Ribonuclease RNA

Deoxyribonuclease DNA

Phosphatase Phosphate esters

Glycosidases Complex carbohydrates; glycosides and polysaccharides

Arylsulfatases Sulfate esters

Collagenase Proteins

Cathepsins Proteins
Vacuoles
Membrane-bound
sacs for storage,
digestion, and
waste removal
Contains water
solution
Help plants
maintain shape

http://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html
Why Are Cells So Small?
Cells need sufficient surface area
to allow adequate transport of
nutrients in and wastes out.
As cell volume increases, so does
the need for the transporting of
nutrients and wastes.
Why Are Cells So Small?
However, as cell volume
increases the surface area of the
cell does not expand as quickly.
◦ If the cell’s volume gets too large it
cannot transport enough wastes out
or nutrients in.
Thus,surface area limits cell
volume/size.
Endomembrane System
Smooth ER (SER)
◦ Tubular membrane structure
◦ Continuous with RER
◦ No ribosomes attached
Function SER
◦ Lipids are made inside the SER
 fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols..
◦ Lipids are packaged in transport
vesicles and sent to the Golgi
Endomembrane System
Vacuoles
-membrane-bound structures with
various functions depending on the
cell type

There are different types of vacuoles:

-central vacuole in plant cells
-contractile vacuole of some
protists
-vacuoles for storage
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Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
-a series of membranes
throughout the cytoplasm
-divides cell into compartments
where different cellular functions
occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes
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Endomembrane System
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER)
-membranes that create a network of
channels throughout the cytoplasm
-attachment of ribosomes to the
membrane gives a rough appearance
-synthesis of proteins to be secreted,
sent to lysosomes or plasma
membrane

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Endomembrane System
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER)
-relatively few ribosomes attached
-functions:
-synthesis of membrane lipids
-calcium storage
-detoxification of foreign
substances

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Endomembrane System
Endomembrane System
Golgi apparatus
-flattened stacks of
interconnected membranes
-packaging and distribution of
materials to different parts of the
cell
-synthesis of cell wall
components

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Endomembrane System
Lysosomes
-membrane bound vesicles
containing digestive enzymes to
break down macromolecules
-destroy cells or foreign matter
that the cell has engulfed by
phagocytosis

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Endomembrane System
Microbodies
-membrane bound vesicles
-contain enzymes
-not part of the endomembrane
system
-glyoxysomes in plants contain
enzymes for converting fats to
carbohydrates
-peroxisomes contain oxidative
enzymes and catalase
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Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus
◦ Stack of flattened membrane sacs
Function Golgi apparatus
◦ Completes the processing
substances received from the ER
◦ Sorts, tags and packages fully
processed proteins and lipids in
vesicles
Golgi Apparatus
Golgi apparatus receives
transport vesicles from the ER on
one side of the organelle
◦ Vesicle binds to the first layer of the
Golgi and its contents enter the Golgi
Golgi Apparatus
◦ The proteins and lipids are modified
as they pass through layers of the
Golgi
◦ Molecular tags are added to the fully
modified substances
 These tags allow the substances to be
sorted and packaged appropriately.
 Tags also indicate where the substance is
to be shipped.
Golgi Apparatus
Transport Vesicles
Transport Vesicles
◦ Vesicle = small membrane bound
sac
◦ Transport modified proteins and
lipids from the ER to the Golgi
apparatus (and from Golgi to final
destination)
Endomembrane System
Putting it all together
◦DNA directs RNA synthesis 
RNA exits nucleus through a
nuclear pore  ribosome 
protein is made  proteins with
proper code enter RER 
proteins are modified in RER and
lipids are made in SER  vesicles
containing the proteins and lipids
bud off from the ER
Endomembrane System
Putting it all together
ER vesicles merge with Golgi
body  proteins and lipids enter
Golgi  each is fully modified as
it passes through layers of Golgi
 modified products are
tagged, sorted and bud off in
Golgi vesicles  …
Endomembrane System
Putting it all together
Golgi vesicles either merge
with the plasma membrane and
release their contents OR
remain in the cell and serve a
purpose
Vesicles
Vesicles - small membrane bound
sacs
◦ Examples
 Golgi and ER transport vesicles
 Peroxisome
 Where fatty acids are metabolized
 Where hydrogen peroxide is detoxified
 Lysosome
 contains digestive enzymes
 Digests unwanted cell parts and other
wastes
Lysosomes (4.10)
The lysosome is an example of an
organelle made at the Golgi
apparatus.
◦ Golgi packages digestive enzymes in
a vesicle. The vesicle remains in the
cell and:
 Digests unwanted or damaged cell parts
 Merges with food vacuoles and digest the
contents

 Figure 4.10A
Lysosomes (4.11)
Tay-Sachs disease occurs when
the lysosome is missing the
enzyme needed to digest a lipid
found in nerve cells.
◦ As a result the lipid accumulates and
nerve cells are damaged as the
lysosome swells with undigested
lipid.
Mitochondria (4.15)
 Function – synthesis of ATP
◦ 3 major pathways involved in ATP
production
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs Cycle
3. Electron transport system (ETS)
Mitochondria
Structure:
◦ ~1-5 microns
◦ Two membranes
 Outer membrane
 Inner membrane - Highly folded
 Folds called cristae
◦ Intermembrane space (or outer
compartment)
◦ Matrix
 DNA and ribosomes in matrix
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (4.15)
 Function – synthesis of ATP
◦ 3 major pathways involved in ATP
production
1. Glycolysis - cytoplasm
2. Krebs Cycle - matrix
3. Electron transport system (ETS) -
intermembrane space
Mitochondria
TEM
Mitochondria
Mitochondria
-organelles present in all types of
eukaryotic cells
-contain oxidative metabolism
enzymes for transferring the
energy within macromolecules to
ATP
-found in all types of eukaryotic
cells
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Mitochondria
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-smooth outer membrane
-folded inner membrane with
layers called cristae
-matrix is within the inner
membrane
-intermembrane space is located
between the two membranes
-contain their own DNA
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Mitochondria

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