HISTORY AND

LITERATURE OF
PHARMACY

DR. LAIBA AAMIR

YIPS
History of Pharmacy
The history of pharmacy reflects the evolution of human understanding of medicine, from ancient
herbal remedies to advanced pharmaceuticals and patient-centered care. Throughout history,
pharmacy has been a vital discipline in promoting health and wellness.

•Bheshaj is the term used in India from the last four thousand years which is equivalent to Greek term
Pharmacon meaning drug from which the term Pharmacy has been derived.
•In ancient times pharmacist was responsible for making the drug into suitable dosage form acceptable to
patient. Pharmacist was also involved in procurement of drug from various sources.
•Pharmacy always remained associated with medicine, pharmacy was officially separated from medicine for
the first time in 1240 AD, when a declaration of Emperor Frederick II of Germany regulated the practice of
pharmacy within the part of his kingdom called the two Sicilies. His announcement separating the two
professions acknowledged that pharmacy required special knowledge, skill, initiative, and responsibility.
Pharmacists were obligated by oath to prepare reliable drugs of uniform quality according to their art.
Ancient period
The ancient period marked the early beginnings of pharmacy, where medicinal knowledge was
rooted in nature, utilizing herbal remedies and natural substances. This foundational knowledge
laid the groundwork for the development of pharmaceutical sciences in later civilizations .
Ancient periodinclude Egyptian and Mesopotamian Contributions. Ancient civilizations like
Egypt and Mesopotamia documented pharmaceutical knowledge through papyrus scrolls and
clay tablets, detailing herbal remedies and medicinal substances.
• Papyrus Records: The Ebers Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Papyrus are among the oldest
preserved medical documents (circa 1550-1500 BC) detailing Egyptian medical knowledge.
They contain extensive information on herbal remedies, surgeries, and medical treatments.
• Clay Tablets: The earliest records of pharmaceutical practices come from Mesopotamia
(modern-day Iraq) around 2600 BC. Clay tablets mention various medicinal recipes,
including plant-based remedies and incantations for healing. Mesopotamians utilized herbs
like licorice, mustard, and poppy for medicinal purposes. They were documented on clay
tablets, providing details about the preparation and usage of these substances.
• Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM): The ancient Chinese relied heavily on herbal medicine,
acupuncture, and dietary therapies. Texts like the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing documented
numerous medicinal substances and their effects. Shen Nong was also called “Father of China
Medicine”. He investigate 365 herbs by testing and experimenting on himself and die by overdose
of one herb by himself/
• Ayurveda: This system of medicine, dating back over 5,000 years, emphasized the balance of
bodily elements (doshas) and utilized herbs, minerals, and yoga practices for healing. Texts like
Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita detailed medicinal treatments and surgical procedures.
Role of Greek Scientist in Pharmacy:
Throughout history, many individuals have contributed to the advancement of health sciences. Notable
among those whose genius and creativeness had a revolutionary influence on the development of
pharmacy and medicine were :
• Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 BC),
• Dioscorides (1st Century AD),
• Galen (ca. 130-200 AD), and
• Paracelsus (1793-1541 AD).
HIPPOCRATES

•Hippocrates, a Greek physician,

•He introduce of scientific pharmacy and medicine.
•Hippocrates' legacy as a rational thinker, herbalist, and ethical practitioner.
•He streamlined medicine, systematized medical knowledge and put the
practice of medicine on a high ethical place and his thinking on the ethics
and sciences medicine dominated the medical writings of his and
successive generations.
•His works included the descriptions of hundreds of drugs, and it was
during this period that the term 'Pharmakon' came into existence which
means a purifying remedy for good only, excel the previous association of a
charm or drug for good or for evil purposes.
•Hippocrates is called as the Father of Medicine
DIOSCORIDES

• Dioscorides, a Greek physician and botanist,

• First to used botany as an applied science of pharmacy.
• His work, De Materia Medica, is considered a landmark in the
development of pharmaceutical botany and in the study of
naturally occurring medicinal materials. This influential text
served as a comprehensive encyclopedia of medicinal
substances and plants.
• This area of study is today known as pharmacognosy, a term
formed from two Greek words, "pharmakon" meaning drug
and "gnosis" means knowledge.
• Drugs Dioscorides described, including opium, ergot, and
hyoscyamus, continue to have use in medicine.
CLAUDIUS GALEN

• Claudius Galen, a Greek pharmacist-physician,

• He created a perfect system of physiology, pathology, and treatment.
• Galen prepared doctrines that were followed for 1500 years.
• He was one of the most creative authors of his time or any other year,
having been credited with 500 treatises on medicine and some 250
others on philosophy, law, and grammar.
• His medical writings include descriptions of numerous drugs of natural
origin with a large amount of drug formulas and methods of
compounding.
• He originated so many preparations of vegetable drugs by mixing or
melting the individual ingredients that the field of pharmaceutical
preparations was commonly referred to as "Galenic pharmacy" at that
time.
Role of Muslim Scientist in Pharmacy:
The contributions of Muslim scientists during the Arab period were pivotal in
preserving, expanding, and advancing pharmaceutical knowledge. Their works became
foundational in pharmacy and allied sciences, shaping the course of medicine and
pharmacy practices for centuries to come.
 Among the Muslim scientist, the Arabs were the greatest doctors, the first chemists, the best
pharmacists.
 They played a major role in history of therapeutics.
 They preserved and built the knowledge of Greco-Roman period.
 They followed the teachings of Muhammad (P.B.U.H). The time interval from the 9th to the
13th century remained known as the “golden period of the Arabic science”, and a significant
place among the taught sciences are occupied by medicine and pharmacy.
 Arabs were able to use their cultural and natural resources and trade links to contribute to
the strong development of pharmacy.
The Arabs made significant contributions to pharmaceutical
science by exploring around 2,000 substances. They set a goal
for their work, listing medicinal herbs used for treatment. The
methods they used back then are still used in therapy today,
and some drug formulas from that time can still be found in
modern pharmacopeias.

What makes their impact even clearer is that much of the

literature in this field originated in Arabic. Over time, many
editions and translations of Arabic pharmaceutical works into
Latin have been published. This shows just how much Arabic
science contributed to the development of pharmacy.
 Abbasid Caliphate:
For the history of pharmacy, it is very important to note the fact that we find the first
beginnings of professional pharmacy among Arabic population.
• In Baghdad, the first Pharmacy was established in 754 under the Abbasid caliphate
during the Islamic golden age.
• The clear-cut separation of the two professions, physicians and Pharmacist was done
in 800 A.D in Abbasid caliphate.
Yahanna Bin Masawayh (777 to 857 A.D.):

• Ibn-e-Masawayh was one of the contributors to Arabic

Pharmacy.
• He Wrote a book “Ibn-e-Masawayh” which includes 30
aromatics, their Physical properties, method of
detecting adulteration (spoil) and Pharmacological
effects.
• He recommended saffron for liver and stomach
ailments.
Abu- Hassan Ali Bin Sahl Rabban at Tabari:

He wrote a famous book “paradise of wisdom”. It contains

discussions on the nature of man, cosmology (study of stars),
embryology, diet and diseases.
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya Razi (846 to 930 A.D.):

• He was one of the greatest Physician in Islam.

• He was supporter of the art of AlChemy. To a great extent, he
influenced the development of Pharmacy and medical therapy
throughout the middle ages.
• He wrote two books named Ar-Asrar and Sirr Al Asrar.
• He introduce first description of “small pox’ and “allergic
asthma”.
• Razi contributed early pharmacy by compiling text, in which he
introduce the use of ‘mercurial ointment’ and his development
of apparatus such as mortars, flask, spatulas.
Abu Al Qasim Al Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936 – 1013 A.D.):

• He was Pioneer in the preparation of medicines by

sublimation and distillation.
• He worked on the extraction or urinary bladder stones.
• He is known as the doctor of / father of surgery.
• He wrote “Kitab-alTasrif”, a thirty volume encyclopedia
of medical practices. The 28th book consists of simple
medicines of vegetables, animals or mineral origin
Al-Biruni (973-1050)

• Al-Biruni (973-1050) wrote one of the most valuable

Islamic works on pharmacology entitled Kitab al-
Saydalah (The Book of Drugs), where he gave
detailed knowledge of the properties of drugs and
outlined the role of pharmacy and the functions and
duties of the pharmacist.
Ibn-e-Sina (Avicenna) (980 – 1037 A.D.):
• Ibn-e-Sina (Avicenna) was a Persian polymath in
Pharmacy and Medicine during the Arabian era. George Sarton, the father of history of science wrote
in “Introduction to the History of Science” :
• Known for his versatility as a pharmacist, poet, “One of the most famous exponent of Muslim
physician, philosopher, and diplomat. universalism and an eminent figure in Islamic
learning was Ibn Sina, known in west as Avicena..His
• Wrote extensively in Arabic, including the famous
most important medical work are the Qanun (Canon)
book "Kitab Al Shifa" (The Book of Healing) and Al- and a treatise on Cardiac drugs. The ‘Qanun fi-l-Tibb’
Canon fi al-Tib (The Canon of Medicine) is an immense encyclopedia of medicine”.
• Described around 700 preparations in his writings,
detailing their properties, modes of action, and
recommended uses.
• Highly respected by Persian rulers and played a
significant role in shaping medicine and pharmacy
during his time.
• He discovered contagious nature of infectious diseases,
and introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of
infectious disease.
• He introduce experimental medicine, evidence based
medicine and clinical pharmacology.
 PHARMACOPOEIAS
The term pharmacopoeia comes from
Greek word "Pharmakon meaning 'drug"
and "Poein" meaning 'make', and the
combination means any recipe or formula
or other standard required to make or
prepare a drug.

"Pharmacopoeia (literally, the art of the drug

compounder), In modern technical sense, is a book
containing directions for the identification of samples and
the preparation of compound medicines, and published
by the authority of a government or a medical or
pharmaceutical society. The name has also been applied
to similar compendiums issued by private individuals".
 History of Pharmacopoeia
•Some of the earliest pharmacopoeia books were written by Muslim physicians.
These included :
The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna in the 1020s
• Pharmacopoeia books by
Abu-Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century,
Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century (and printed in 1491), and
Ibn Baytar in the 14th century.
• The first work of the kind published under government authority appears to
have been that of Nuremberg in 1542. The term 'Pharmacopoeia' was first used
in 1580 in a book on drug standards printed in Bergamo, Italy.
• Pharmacopoeia were official throughout the United kingdom. Each
pharmacopoeia described different strength and method of preparation for
same preparation. Hence there was a lot of confusion. To overcome this
difficulty, the first British Pharmacopoeia came into existence in 1864. In the
United States, the first pharmacopoeia was published in December 1820 both
in English and in Latin. Later on a national formulary was also published in
addition to USP (United States pharmacopoeia).
• These books are revised from time to time so as to introduce the latest
information available as early as possible after they become established in
order to introduce new products and to keep the size of book within
reasonable limits it becomes necessary to omit certain less frequently used
drugs and pharmaceutical adjuvant from each new edition of the book.
Therefore in each new edition of these books certain new monographs are
added while the older once are deleted.For the preparation of these books the
expert opinion of medical practitioners, teachers and pharmaceutical
manufacturers is obtained.
Classification Of Drug Compendia
The drug compendia are classified as:

A. Official compendia.

B. Non-official compendia.
A. Official compendia

Official compendia are the compilations of drugs and others related substances which
are recognized as legal standards s of purity, quality and strength by a government
agency of respective countries of their origin.
Official compendia's include
British Pharmacopoeia,
British Pharmaceutical Codex,
Indian Pharmacopoeia,
United states Pharmacopoeia,
National formulary,
the state Pharmacopoeia of USSR and Pharmacopoeia of other countries.
B. Non official compendia

The books other than official drug compendia which are used as secondary reference source for
drugs and other related substances are known as non official drug compendia.
Example like
 Merck index,
 Remington's pharmaceutical sciences, etc.
 British Pharmacopoeia
•The British pharmacopoeia (BP) is a collection of quality
standards for UK medicinal substances. It is used by
individuals and organizations involved in pharmaceutical
research, development, manufacturing and British
pharmacopoeia is an important statutory testing.
•The first publication of British Pharmacopoeia was in 1864
and has grown throughout the world. It is now used in over
100 countries. Australia and Canada are two of the countries
that have adopted the BP as their national standard
alongside the UK, and in other countries (e.g. Korea) it is
recognized as an internationally acceptable standard.
British Pharmacopoeia was a fusion of three following :
• Eidenberg Pharmacopoeia in Scotland 1699
• Londinesis Pharmacopoeia in London 1684
• Dublin Pharmacopoeia in Dublin 1807
•The development of pharmacopoeial standards receives input from relevant industries,
hospitals, academia, professional bodies and governmental sources, both within and outside the
UK. The BP Laboratory provides analytical and technical support to the British Pharmacopoeia.
•1st Edition contain two section, First Section is about Materia Medica And second for
preparation an compounding.
•1 to 7th edition of BP was published in Latin language and from 8th to onward was published in
English.

 British Pharmacopoeia comprises six volumes which contain nearly monographs for
drug substances, excipients and formulated preparation, together with supporting general
notices, appendices (test methods, reagents, etc.) and reference spectra used in the practice
of medicine, all comprehensively indexed and cross-referenced for easy reference.
The BP is available as a printed volume and electronically in both on-line and CD-ROM
versions, the electronic products use sophisticated search techniques to locate information
quickly.
 BP 2004 to 2009 was in same pattern and comprises six volumes as following: BP Volume V contains

British pharmacopoeia
(veterinary).
BP Volume IV
BP Volumes I and II BP Volume III
contains

 Formulated
• Appendices. BP Volume VI contains
Medicinal substances preparations.
 Blood related • Infrared reference
CD ROM VERSION
preparations. spectra.
contains”
 Immunological • Index. • British
products.
pharmacopoeia
 Radiopharmaceuti  British
cal preparations.
pharmacopoeia
 Surgical materials.
(veterinary).
 British approved
names
  After 2009 edition, BP 2010 was published by TSO ( The
stationary office) on behalf of British Pharmacopeia secretariat
which is a part of Medicine and Healthcare product Regulatory
Agency (MHRA)

It's important to note that the British Pharmacopoeia is regularly

updated, and new editions are published. Each edition may bring
changes to existing monographs, additions of new monographs, and
updates to general notices and supplementary chapters. We should
refer to the specific edition of the British Pharmacopoeia for the most
accurate and current information.
Features of BP:
The major functions of BP are:
1. Development of new pharmacopoeial monographs.
2. Development and validation of qualitative and quantitative test methods for
new BP monograph specifications.
3. Refining and revalidating test methods for existing BP monographs.
Features of latest 2024 version of BP

BP 2024 supersedes the BP 2023 and becomes legally effective on 1 January 2024.
This edition incorporates new monographs from both the BP and Ph. Eur. along
with a significant number of revised monographs
• Includes approximately 4,000 monographs.
• 27 new BP monographs, 17 new Ph. Eur. monographs.
• 93 amended BP monographs.
• All monographs from the Ph. Eur. 11th edition and Ph. Eur.
supplements 11.1 and 11.2.
British Pharmaceutical Codex
• It was in 1903 that the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain decided to
prepare a reference book for the use of medical practitioners and dispensing
pharmacists.
• In 1907 the British Pharmacopoeia was supplemented by the British
Pharmaceutical Codex, which gave information on drugs and other
pharmaceutical substances not included in the BP, and provided standards for
these.
• On the request of British Pharmacopoeia Commission, the Council
of the pharmaceutical society agreed in 1959 for the publication
of Codex to coincide with that of the British Pharmacopoeia, so
that these two books, i.e. British pharmaceutical codex and British
pharmacopoeia should come into effect on the same dates.
The British pharmaceutical codex differs from British pharmacopoeia
in that:
1. It contains many new drugs and preparations; some were included in advance, which
were in the pipeline of clinical trials or synthesis.
2. It provides standards for drugs, surgical dressings and pharma-
3. ceutical preparations not included in the British Pharmacopeia.
4. It provides information on the actions and uses of drugs, their undesirable effects,
precautions and the treatment of poisoning.
5. It contains formulae, method of preparation, dose, container and storage conditions
of majority of pharmaceutical preparations for, e.g. mixtures, powders, eyedrops,
eardrops, liniments, lotions, ointments, creams, pastes, suppositories, etc.
United States Pharmacopeia
The United States Pharmacopeia is an official public standards-setting
authority for all prescription and over-the-counter medicines and
other health care products manufactured or sold in the United States.
USP also sets recognized standards for food ingredients and dietary
supplements. These standards help to ensure the quality, purity,
strength, and consistency of products made for Public consumption.
USP's standards are recognized and used in more than 130 countries
around the globe.
The United States Pharmacopoeia and the National formulary (USP-
NF) are recognized as official compendia and are used as reference
books for determining the strength, quality, purity, packaging and
labeling of drugs and other related articles
The United States Pharmacopoeia was originally published in 1820 under
the authority of the United States Pharmacopoeial convention.
The National Formulary was published in 1888 under the guidance of the
American pharmaceutical association/
In 1974 the national formulary was purchased by the United States
Pharmacopoeial convention and from 1980 onwards only one official book of
drug standards was published under the heading, (the United States
Pharmacopoeia and the National formulary (USP-NF))
How USP works?
• USP is a non-governmental, not-for-profit public health organization whose
independent, volunteer experts work under strict conflict-of- interest rules to
set its scientific standards. USP's work is aided by the participation and
oversight of volunteers representing pharmacy, medicine, and other health
care professions as well as academia, government, the pharmaceutical and
food industries, health plans, and consumer organizations.
Main Features of USP

1. Product Quality-Standards and Verification : USP establishes

documentary and reference standards to ensure quality medicines, food
ingredients, and other health care products.
2. Healthcare Information
3. Patient Safety
4. Drug Quality and Information: USP's drug quality and information (USP
DQI) program is a cooperative agreement with the United States Agency for
international development (USAID).
The International Pharmacopoeia

The International Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Int.), is issued by the World Health

Organization. The aim is to achieve a wide global uniformity of quality
specifications for selected pharmaceutical products, excipients, and dosage 11th Edition
forms. High priority is given to medicines that are important to WHO health of The
Internationa
programs, and which may not appear in any other pharmacopoeias, e.g. new l
antimalarial drugs. Pharmacop
oeia was
•“The international pharmacopoeia (Ph. Int.) comprises a collection of published
quality specifications for pharmaceutical substances (active ingredients on 2 March
2023
and excipients) and dosage forms together with supporting general
methods of analysis that is intended to serve as source material for
reference or adaptation by any WHO member state wishing to establish
pharmaceutical requirements”.
•The activities related to the international pharmacopoeia are an essential element in
the overall quality control and assurance of pharmaceuticals contributing to the safety
and efficacy of medicines.
•The international pharmacopoeia recognizes the needs of specific disease programmes
and the essential medicines nominated under these programmes; it is based primarily
on those substances included in the current WHO model list of essential medicines. The
work on The international pharmacopoeia is carried out in collaboration with members
of the WHO expert advisory panel on the international pharmacopoeia and
pharmaceutical preparations and with other specialists. The process involves
consultation of and input from WHO member states and drug regulatory authorities.

WHO Perspective
The International Pharmacopoeia focuses on monographs of particular relevance to low- and
middle-income countries which may not have sufficient resources to develop national
pharmacopoeias. Our compendium supports key WHO activities, such as the Organization's
efforts to make essential medicines available and affordable for everyone, everywhere and to
combat substandard and falsified medicines.
British National Formulary (BNF)
The British National Formulary (BNF) is a United Kingdom (UK) pharmaceutical
reference book that contains a wide spectrum of information and advice on prescribing
and pharmacology, along with specific facts and details about many medicines available
on the UK National Health Service (NHS). Information within the BNF includes
indication(s), contraindications, side effects, doses, legal classification, names and prices
of available proprietary and generic formulations, and any other notable points.
It is used by pharmacists and doctors (both general practitioners (GPs) and generalist
hospital practitioners, and by other prescribing healthcare professionals (such as nurses,
pharmacy technicians, paramedics, and dentists)); as a reference for correct dosage,
indication, interactions and side effects of drugs. It is also used as a reassurance by those
administering drugs, for example a nurse on a hospital ward, and even for patients and
others seeking an authoritative source of advice on any aspect of pharmacotherapy.
Development Of BNF

• It is published under the authority of a Joint Formulary Committee (JFC), which

comprises pharmacy, medical, nursing, and lay representatives; there are also
representatives from the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency
(MHRA), the UK Health Departments, and a national guideline producer.
• Information on drugs is drawn from the manufacturers' product literature, medical
and pharmaceutical literature, regulatory authorities and professional bodies.
Advice is constructed from clinical literature, and reflects, as far as possible, an
evaluation of the evidence from diverse sources. The BNF also takes account of
authoritative national guidelines and emerging safety concerns
History of BNF:
• It was first published in 1949,as the National Formulary, with updated versions
appearing every three years until 1976. The fifth version in 1957 saw its name
change to The British National Formulary.
Editions:
• A new edition of the BNF book is published twice-yearly, in March and
September. The current edition is 86, which was published in September 2023. It
is a tradition that the colour of each new edition is radically different from the
previous.
The BNF is typically published in
two separate books:

BNF (British National Formulary):

• Contains drug information,
prescribing guidelines, and
other essential pharmaceutical
information.
BNF for Children:
• Focuses on pediatric
prescribing and provides
information on drug use in
children.
Sections of BNF
The BNF is organized into various sections to facilitate easy access to
specific information. Below is an overview of the main sections found
in the BNF:
1.Preface:
This section typically includes information about the purpose and
structure of the BNF, updates, and any changes in the latest
edition.
2.Guidance and Background Information:
Provides guidance on how to use the BNF, including details on drug
classifications, dosage forms, and prescription writing.
3.Prescribing and Dispensing Guidance:
Offers information on prescription requirements, legal aspects of
prescribing, and guidance on dispensing medications.
4. Formulary:
This section contains drug monographs arranged alphabetically by
generic name. Each monograph provides detailed information on the
drug's uses, dosage, side effects, contraindications, and other
relevant details.
5. Non-Drug Treatment:
Covers non-pharmacological treatment options, including medical
devices, dressings, and other therapeutic interventions.
6. Appendices:
Contains additional reference material, such as dosage and
administration guidelines, conversion tables, and other practical
information.
7. Indexes:
Includes various indexes, such as the drug index (listing drugs
alphabetically), product index (listing medications by brand name),
and therapeutic index (grouping drugs by therapeutic class).