Wallaga University Shambu Campus

Course:- Introduction to Agriculture (SRWM3152)

 CHAPTER FIVE

5.Introduction to Animal production

What are Livestock?
 Are all stock of farm animals or domestic animals
 Vary between countries and continents as a result of
differences in geographical location, climate, availability of
grazing land, incidence of diseases, etc.
 These variation can be in relation to the following features of an
animals:-
• Color and shape
• Body size and weight
• Performance (growth, production and reproduction)
• Nature and Behavior
• Requirements
• Tolerance and adaptability
• etc
 Livestock include all species and breeds of domesticated animals
namely :-
• Cattle (Beef, Dairy and Dual Purpose)
• Domestic Birds such as Chickens, Ducks, Turkeys, etc
• Sheep and Goat
• Domestic Insects such as Honey Bees, Silkworms, etc
• Species and breeds of swine
• Species and breeds of Camel
• Equine such as Donkey, Horse, and Mule
• Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa, with 65
million cattle, 40 million sheep, 51 million goats, 8 million
camels and 49 million chickens in CSA, 2020
 Domestication, Origin and Classification of Farm Animals

Domestication
 Refers to the time when farm animals became familiar to human

kind at specific point of time and place.

 It also refers to the time when humankind started rearing and

using farm animals as agriculture sector.

 A major group of mammals domesticated, after the Caprinae

family, were the large bovinae family i.e cattle family.

• W/c includes humped (Bos indicus) & humpless (Bos taurus)
Origin (Cattle)
• Refers to the place or group of animals to which the animals belong.

• The original cattle can be divided into two major categories, namely Bos

indicus and Bos taurus.

• The taurus groups belong to European (temperate) cattle where as the Indicus

is tropical cattle.

• European cattle probably are descended from the wild cattle, B.

primigenius of Europe and were first domesticated in southeastern

Europe about 8,500 years ago.

• The zebu or Brahman or B. indicus cattle, were domesticated in

southern Asia about the same time or a little later.

Note that!

 Not only the Caprinae and Bovinae family of livestock

animals, all other livestock species and breeds have their

own time of domestication and origin.

 Nowadays, there are several number of species and breeds

of livestock or farm animals around the world

 This is due to increasing in the number and demands of human

population, applications of science concepts in the sector and

advancement of livestock production technologies

 Ethiopian Livestock Breeds

• Cattle Breeds
 Arsi Breed
 Abyssinian shorthorn Breed
 Arado Breed
 Boran Breed
 Danakil (Afar or Adal) Breed
 Raya breed
 Fogera Breed
 Horro Breed
 Sheko Breed
Note that!
• Also there are different species and breeds of other livestock
or farm animals in Ethiopia. These breeds can be
 The role of livestock production
– Food, fiber, fertilizer and fuel
– Cash income through the sale of animals and their products
– Draught power for smallholder farm operations and
transportation (Ploughing, cultivation, threshing, transport)
– Serve as a live bank in rural livelihood
– Health and nutrition-source of protein especially for vulnerable
groups(children, pregnant and nursing women)
– Buffer against crop failure and other risks, means of risk
minimization
– Environmental services-renewable sources of fuel, thereby
reducing need of fossil fuels and pressure on forests
– Employment- creating jobs by providing raw materials for
agro-based industries

– Support for the social network and cultural prestige (religious

purpose as an object of worship; a cow in Hindu, as an object of
sacrifices – sheep, goats, etc-)

– Medicinal Research (e.g. rat)

– Sport and pleasure, recreation Pet animals (cats and dogs) give
pleasure Hunting animals (certain dog breeds)
 Constraint of livestock production & productivity
• Non genetic constraint
– Inadequate nutrition,
– Disease
– A lack of support services such as extension services,
– Insufficient data with which to plan improved services,
– And inadequate information on how to improve animal
breeding, marketing, and processing.
– The high concentration of animals in the highlands, together
with the fact that cattle are often kept for status, reduces
the economic potential of Ethiopian livestock
• Genetic Constraints
– Low genetic potential of indigenous livestock is considered by many to
be the major bottleneck in the sector.
– No or little information is available on the genetic merits of almost all
livestock breeds in the country.
 Livestock Management and Improvement
• These two are very important and determining issues in the
livestock production sector.
Livestock Management
 refers to an art or a science of managing an individual or group of
farm animals at specified level for/with predetermined purposes,
objectives and goals of production.
How to Manage Livestock?
• This is achieved through the management of :-
 Feeds and Feeding
 Watering and Water supply
 Housing and House
 Health and Health related risks
 Herd size and
 Fulfilling the other requirements of the animals
• Improvement of livestock , in terms of
health, welfare and productivity(both in terms
of quantity and quality of farm products such as
milk and meat) is key for the future
sustainability of farming.
 Livestock Nutrition

• Nutrition: - is the sum total of the process by which living

things receive and utilize the necessary materials for
survival, growth and maintenance of worn-out tissues
• Like humans, livestock animals need a balanced diet
containing all the necessary nutrients, fluids,
minerals, and vitamins.
• Proper nutrition gives your animals the vigor to
grow, develop, and reproduce, and strong immunity to
fight off infections.
• All these advantages lead to more profitable and
sustainable agriculture.
 Prevent malnutrition, deficiencies, and diseases

 There are hundreds of nutrition-related illnesses that affect

livestock animals.
• Most of these illnesses are caused by either malnutrition or
minerals and vitamin deficiencies.

• Deficiencies and malnutrition severely impact animals’ growth,

development, and production; some extreme cases can lead to
irreversible health conditions, disorders, or even fatalities.
Livestock feed
• Generally, classified as:-
 Roughage Feeds
 compacted and lignified feeds with high fibre and low crude protein
 Very poor or non-digestible sort of feeds
Examples :Alfalfa, oat hay, soya bean, clover….
 Concentrate Feeds
 High crude protein and low crude fiber
 Highly or good digestible feed
Basically, concentrate consists of fat, cereal grains and their by-
products (barley, corn, oats, rye, wheat), high-protein oil meals or
cakes (soybean, canola, cottonseed, peanut), and by-products from
the processing of sugar beets, sugarcane, animals, and fish.
 Further, livestock feeds can be categorized as follows:-
 Naturally grown (woody and pasture) feeds
 Cultivated (Woody and pasture) feeds
 Improved pasture feeds
 Crop residues
 • Conserved feeds:- Hay and Silage feed
• Industrial by-products
• Supplementary feeds
• Again , livestock feeds can be categorized as:-
• Dry and fresh (high moisture) feeds
• Processed feeds
• Formulated and Balanced feeds
Livestock Feeding Systems
1. Grazing system
• Continuous, rotational (strip, rested, deferred RG)
2. Cut and Carry System
• Zero grazing
3. Supplementary Feeding system

4. Mixed feeding system

 CHAPTER SIX
2.1. Livestock production system
• Some of the principal factors for classification are
– Degree of dependence on animal
– Type of agriculture
– Mobility of people and
– Management activities
• The management of livestock greatly influenced to a large
extent by
– The people who own them, and
– The geographical location.
• Based up on the above criteria livestock production classified
as:
 Extensive production system
17
 Semi-intensive production system
 Land less or Intensive production system
I. Extensive production systems
Livestock graze of browse large area of land that is usually of marginal nature and
unsuitable for other agricultural uses.
It may be divided in to nomadic and transhumant type of systems based on
mobility of people
– Sometimes known as free range system
This production system has:-
 Low labor and capital requirement
– Low-input low out-put system
– Is typical of pastoral and agro-pastoral areas (arid and semi-arid).
– There is no supplemental feed available for livestock
– Subsistence /Semi - subsistence (sale<50% of their total production)
– The size is often large and other species may also be mixed
– livestock are usually kept for meat, milk and skins (multi-purpose)
– Availability of feed is seasonal (both the quality and quantity)
– High mortality rate of kids/lambs/calves. The mortality rate before weaning
rises up to 30%
18
– Long lambing calving and kidding interval, i.e. long anestrous period
II. Crop-livestock (semi –intensive) production systems
It is partly intensive and partly extensive production system with features of both
types of the systems (combines the extensive and intensive systems).
It is favored where labor is limited for intensive production system as intensive
systems require high labor input

Generally semi –intensive production was practiced:-

 When labor and other facility are limited to intensive and
 When land is limited to extensive production system at the same time.
 People who live in this area have practiced sedentary crop agriculture and with
livestock production.
Advantages
 Increase fertility of land due to manure drops from animals/livestock and reduces
fertilizer input
 Controls weed grown under the plantation
 Reduces fertilizer input
 Brings greater economic returns to the farmers from both the plantation crops
and animals
19
Disadvantage
 Not productive as much as intensive production system

III. Landless(Intensive) livestock production systems
– This system may be landless or zero grazing system
– It involves either grazing on forage crops or cultivated pastures at
very high stocking density, or zero grazing. Most commonly in
intensive systems there is a continuous housing
– In zero grazing animals will be confined and so not allowed to
forage (searching their feed) freely
– In this system animals are mainly fed with cut and carry system,
with better management and concentrate supplementation.
– The system is commonly practiced in humid and sub-humid areas:
 Where there is high population pressure
 Where there is good demand for animals and animal products
Where the environment is conducive for high producing
animals
high-input high-output system
20
Advantages
– Efficient utilization of feed resources like crop residues
(straw and Stover)
– Excess feed resources in the rainy season will be conserved
in the form of hay or silage for the dry season
– Control of livestock from predators or thievery is easier
– Reduce damage to crop and environment
Disadvantage
– High cost of production (labour, feeding, management, etc)
– Disease of intensification might be high
 CHAPTER SEVEN
Poultry production and management
• The word ‘’poultry’’ refers to all domesticated birds kept to
produce eggs and meat for human consumption.
• Poultry species includes Domestic chicken; Turkeys; Ducks;
geese; guinea fowls and other domesticated birds.

– Therefore under the present Ethiopian condition, the word

poultry is equivalent to domestic chicken and is synonymously
used with the word chicken.

• Poultry management:- It is the art and science of combing

resources, capital and labor to produce and market poultry meat
 Importance of poultry in Ethiopia and other world

• In providing animal protein rich food (meat and egg)

• As source of income for farmers or producers
• Creates employment opportunity
• Requires small investment;
• they could be maintained on a limited amount of
feed during times of drought compared to large
animals
• the decrease in grazing areas due to increased
demand for cultivable land in highly populated
areas makes poultry production more suitable than
other livestock.
 Types of poultry
1. Meat type poultry
 used for meat production

2. Egg type poultry

 Used for egg production

3. Dual purpose poultry

 used both for meat and egg production
 Ethiopian Poultry (chicken) breeds
1. Local breeds
• Five breeds
 Netch (white), key (red), tikur (black), gebssma and
bare- necked breed

2. Exotic chicken breeds

• E.g. white leg horn, rhode island red, etc
 Poultry production systems
a. Based on scale of production
• Large scale poultry production
• small scale (village) poultry production
b. Based on management
• Extensive system: free range extensive; back yard extensive
• Semi-intensive poultry production system
• Intensive poultry production system

c. Based on scientific knowledge and concepts application

• Modern PS
• Traditional PS
 Other form of poultry PS
1. Litter system
• Deep litter system
• Shallow litter system

2. Cage system
• Poultries produced in the cage
3. Scavenging system
• Poultries produced searching for food around
their home by themselves
 Feeds for poultry

1. Energy feed stuffs: the major energy source of poultry feed are the
cereal grains and their by products

e.g. Grains: corn and wheat is the most important grain used by poultry;
oats barely and sorghum grains are also used extremely in poultry
ration.
2. Supplementary poultry feeds
Protein supplements
• Plant protein: commonly obtained from oil feed by-products, grain
milling, bewaring
• Animal protein: commonly derived from meat packing and rendering
operation, fish and fish processing
Mineral supplements
• Mineral supplements are required by poultry for skeletal
development of growing birds, for egg shell formation, and for
certain other regulatory process in the body.

• Of the macro minerals demonstrated to be required by poultry salt

(sodium chloride), calcium, magnesium, K, and P are routinely
considered for poultry ration.

• The common Ca supplements used in poultry feeding are ground

limestone, crushed oyster shell, bone meal chalk and marble.

• The most important phosphorus source in poultry feeding is

dicalcium phosphate and defluorinated rock phosphate
 REPRODUCTIVE IN POULTRY

The cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent
through which sperms are emitted.

Cock has testes within the body.

The hen has elongated oviduct for formation of an egg.
Fertilization occurs internally.

During mating the cloaca of the hen and the vent of the
cock fit into each other and then semen is poured into the
cloaca ,then sucked to the oviducts.
The Reproductive System of a Hen
 The reproductive system has the following parts;
i). Ovary
ii). Funnel(infundibulum).
iii). Magnum
iv). Ishtumus
V). Uterus/Shell gland
vii) Vaginal
viii). Cloaca Ovary
• Hen has two ovaries but one functional. Ova is formed in ovaries.
About 3500-4000 ova present inside ovary held by follicle. Mature ovum released via rapture of
follicle. It moves into oviduct received by the funnel.

Funnel(infundibulum)
Fertilization occurs here. Chalazae also added to yolk.
It also collects the ovum and stores the sperm. Time here is 15 minutes and it is 11.6cm long.

Magnum
Thick albumen is added and stays for 3hrs. its 33cm long.
• Isthmus
Its 10.6cm long, Shell membranes added and determines shape of egg.
Water, mineral salts and vitamins added and takes 15 minutes.
• Uterus(shell gland)
Calcium deposits i.e. shell added around the egg. Pigments
added.
Addition of albumin finished and stays here for 18-22hours.
• Vagina
Short, 6.9cm long and for temporal storage of egg before
laying
• Cloaca
Egg moves out of cloaca through the vent and the cloaca
extents out to prevent the egg from breaking.
NB;
Egg formation not depended on fertilization. Egg formation
takes 24-26hours.
The components of egg are obtained from body reserves of
the hens body.
 CHAPTER 8
Sheep and goats production and management
Characteristics of sheep and goats
 They
 Have
 high capacity to adapt wide range of topography and environmental
conditions
 fast reproductive rate
 Require
 small space because of their small body size
 low level of management
 low amount of feed to be maintained, produced and reproduced
 low initial capital to start the business
 Are:- - known for ease of handling and controlling
- known for multiple birth.

- fast source of money during time of need, etc .

 Where to produce Sheep and goats?
• Where to produce sheep and goats:-

» In the rangeland or watershed

» In the shoat farm

» Both
Breeds of Sheep and goats

1. Tropical breeds
 Breeds of sheep and goat that are well adapted to tropical climatic condition

2. Temperate breeds
 Breeds of sheep and goat that are well adapted to temperate climatic condition
 Breeds of Sheep and goats in Ethiopia

Ethiopian Goat Breeds

1. Nubian family breed
- Found in north west Ethiopia, in Gonder
– They are black in coat color and some occasional white and red patches
on black back grounds
– Horns of males pointed back and kept for milk and meat
2. Afar (Adal or Danakil)
– entered Ethiopia through Yemen and Saudi Arabia.
– found in Afar region, Eritrean and western Hararghe w/c have variable
coat color and identified by branding.
– kept for milk (food) and medicinal value, sale and for meat.
3. Long – eared Somali goats
• Distributed throughout the Ogaden, and in lowlands of Bale, Borana and southern
Sidama, adapted to arid and semi-arid areas, kept predominantly by pastoral
people
Characteristics
• The coat colour is mainly white, have straight facial profile.
• Have curved and backward pointing horns, long ears
• Few males have ruff but most males and few females possess beard.
• The body weight ranges from 32 to 42 kg and height 69 to 76 cm.
• Mainly kept for milk, meat, blood and social obligations/functions

4. Central Highland goats

• Distributed throughout the central highlands, west of the Rift valley (Tigray, Wollo,
Gonder and Shewa), humid and semi humid areas (Dega and Weyna - dega)
• Kept in small flocks in mixed farming systems

Characteristics
• They have wide face and thick horns, reddish brown in colour and most males
possess beard and ruff.
• Kept for meat, milk, skin and manure
5. Western Highland goats: also called Agew goats

• Distributed throughout the highlands of south Gonder,

Gojjam, Wollega and western shewa, adapted to highland
areas/humid to sub-humid and kept in mixed farming
systems
Characteristics

• Have concave facial profile, coarse but long coat cover

(hair), coat colour is white in combination with other
colour.
• Most goats have straight horns pointing backward.
• Beard and ruff occur in some males. Wattles occur in
some goats (female and male)
• Kept as source of cash, meat and skin.
6. Western lowland goats
• Distributed throughout the western lowlands bordering Sudan (Metekel, Assosa and
Gambella, adapted to humid and sub-humid areas, kept mainly by agro-pastoralists
Characteristics:
• have a straight facial profile, mainly white with some black and grey colours,
straight horns pointing backwards, beard and ruff occur in most males and wattles
occur in few males
• Weigh ranges 34-36kg and height 64-67 cm
• Kept for meat, milk and skins.
7. Keffa goats
• Distributed throughout the highlands and lowlands of Keffa and south Shewa in
Kembata and Haddiya, adapted to the sub-humid highlands and semi-arid lowlands,
kept in small flocks in mixed farming systems
Characteristics:
• Coat colour is red or black, have short neck with small ears and straight facial
profile.
• Males bear horn pointing backwards. Have coarse hairy coat cover. Beard and ruff
occur in most males but wattles occur in few males and females.
• The body weight ranges from 28 to 41 kg and they are 67 to 76 cm in height
• Kept for meat, milk, skin and manure
8. Abergelle breeds
• distributed along Tekeze river in southern Tigray, north Wollo and eastern Gonder.
• Goats were kept with Agew and Tigray ethnic groups.
• They serve as milk producer which processed as butter for home consumption and
meat.
9. Arsi-Bale breeds were found in Arsi and Bale regions, and also at high altitudes of
Sidamo and western Hararghe.
• Their characteristics of identification were hairy, large to medium body size.
10. Woyto-Guji breed
• Found in guji zone
Important exotic goat breeds in Ethiopia
Saanen, Anglo-Nubian, Beetal, Boer, Jamnapari, Toggenburg goats, etc
Sheep Breeds in Ethiopia

1. Afar sheep
• Mainly distributed in the Danakil and the lower
valley of Awash.
• Possesses the following characteristics
– Fat-rumped type
– Polled but has long lop ears
– The base of the tail is wide
– Usually white or reddish in colour
– known for the production of high quality meat
– Mainly kept by pastoral and agro-pastoral communities
2. Abyssinian (Ethiopian) sheep
• Found throughout the highland areas of the country
• May be originated from the Arabian Peninsula
• Kept mainly in the crop-livestock farming system (mixed farming
system) for meat and skin production.
• Has the following characteristics:
• Fat-tailed type sheep
• Females are usually polled and males have various types of
horns
• May have ruff or mane (a long hair on the back of the neck and
shoulder) and long legs
• Medium size, weighing on average 45-52kg and 74cm high
• Mostly brown in coat colour but may be reddish, black, white or
mixed/patchy
• The milk yield is low, only sufficient for the lambs
3. Arsi-Bale sheep
• Found distributed throughout the high land areas of Hararghe, Bale and Arsi.
• Raised in mixed farming systems for meat and skin production
• Has the following Characteristics:
• Fat-tailed type sheep
• Males are horned but females are either polled or may have rudimentary horns.
• Colour varies from dark brown to grey, with white spots

4. Blackhead Somali sheep

• Also known as Ogaden or Berber Black head sheep distributed all over the Somali
areas and horn of Africa
• Well adapted to arid conditions, hence kept by nomadic people
• Characterized by the following features:
• Fat-rumped type sheep (large deposit of fat on the rump and at the base of the
tail/hind quarter, not on the tail of a sheep).
• The coat cover has short hairs
• They have black head with white body and legs.
• The black area covers from head to neck and in some cases reaches to shoulder
• Known for meat and skin Production
• Well adapted to arid conditions, hence kept by pastoral and agro-pastoral
5. Horro sheep
• Mainly distributed in west Ethiopia, around Horrogudru area in Wellega
• Kept in mixed farming systems.
Characteristics
• Neither fat-tailed nor fat-rumped type , rather a thin tailed type
• Mainly polled, medium size sheep with light brown coat colour
• Known for twin births
• Meat and skin productions are the main purposes of keeping

6. Menz sheep
• Distributed throughout the Menz and Selale areas of Shewa
• Adapted to mixed farming systems
Characteristics
• Fat-tailed type sheep
• Males are usually horned but females are polled
• Medium size, weight ranges 30-35kg, and mean height at the shoulders is 64 cm and 58cm for
adult rams and ewes, respectively
• Wool type, probably the local sheep known for coarse wool production
• Shearing is done twice a year with a yield of 1-1.6 kg coarse wool; used for different woolen article
making.
• Also kept for meat production.
• Twin births are common, sometimes up to 60%.
7. Washera (Dangla) sheep
• Found predominantly in West and East Gojjam zones of the
Amhara Region extending to the south of Lake Tana.

Characteristics
• The growth rate after weaning is comparable and even
better than some other indigenous breeds. This indicates the
potential of this breed for commercial mutton production for
the local and export markets.
• High twinning rate
Important exotic breeds of sheep in Ethiopia
• Merino, Merino type, Karakul, Fulani, Corriedale, Dorper,
Awassi, Hampshire sheep, etc
 Sheep and goats Production Systems in Ethiopia

• The major production systems are:

1. Highland sheep–barley system
2. Mixed (crop–livestock ) system
3. Pastoral and agro-pastoral system
4. Urban and peri-urban (landless) system
5. Ranching system
1. Highland sheep–barley system

• This system is found in the highlands where the major crops grown are
barley and pulses such as faba beans, lentils, etc.
• Temperature is the main factor determining productivity in the highland
sheep–barley production system.
• Sheep are the dominant livestock species.
• The main feed resource-base includes rangeland and wasteland grazing,
stubble and sometimes straw.
2. Mixed crop–livestock systems

• Both sheep and goats are raised in mixed crop–livestock systems.

• This systems are based on cropping associated with livestock
husbandry.
• The integration of crops and livestock is high in most areas.
• Sheep and goats are kept to meet small and immediate cash needs.

3. Pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems

Pastoral system
• In general, pastoral systems are associated with agro-ecological zones
that are too dry to sustain crop production.
• Under Ethiopian conditions, pastoral systems of production are found
at altitudes below 1500 m.a.s.l. and where the annual precipitation is
less than 500 mm.
• The following characterize pastoral systems:
– High mobility in search of grazing land and water
– Livestock are maintained as a principal activity.
– Fifty percent of household revenue comes from livestock
or more than 20% of household food energy is derived
directly from livestock or livestock-related activities.
– Rangeland is the main feed resource.
– Seasonal availability of feed and water is main problem
– High mortality rate of kids and lambs
Agro-pastoral system
• This system is characterized by less integration with crop production
as compared to the crop–livestock production systems.

• Producers under this system have a permanent residence and their

movement is limited in terms of both distance and duration.

• The system is characterized by a high degree of dependence on milk

and meat production. Some crop agriculture is practiced around the
permanent homestead. This is also a low input / low output system.

• The system is usually practiced below 1500 m.a.s.l. but with higher
rainfall to support short season crops compared to the pastoral system.
4. Urban and peri-urban (landless) sheep and goat
production system
 This system involves the production of sheep and
goats within and at the periphery of cities.
• Feed resources are usually household wastes,
market area wastes, mill leftovers, by-products and
roadside grazing (particularly in the peri-urban
system).
• In addition, small-scale sheep fattening is emerging
as an economic activity in many growing cities.
Ranching
• Ranching is a range-based system of livestock production
similar to the pastoral systems but with different production
parameters, livestock functions and management.
• Ranching can be considered as a modern landuse system.

• It is a labor-extensive system focusing on the production of

marketable commodities from one or two selected species.
This is manly in the form of producing live slaughter
animals for meat.

• The main function of the system is to generate cash

income.
 CHAPTER 9
Apiculture
Apiculture – is the science and art of raising honey bees

• Beekeeping is an art of keeping bee colonies for man’s economic

benefit. This include healthy colony, hive designed for the purpose &
management of the system or operation.

The honey bee colony

• are social insects, cooperate in caring for young and foraging tasks
according to their division of labour.
• Each colony contains one queen bee, a few hundred-drone bees
(males), and thousands of worker bees.
• At a time of a year, a colony also consists of developing broods (i.e.
eggs, larvae, & pupae).
 Queen
• Queen is the most important individual in the
colony
– Responsible for normal functioning of hive
– Quality of the queen determines the value of a
hive
Queen Development
• Develops from a fertilized egg or young female larva
• Queens are reared in special cells
- hang vertically and extended as larva grows
• Queen larvae are fed a diet of “Royal Jelly”
• Cell capped on day 5, larva spins cocoon
• Completes development and emerges after about 15
1/2 to 16 days after the egg was laid.
• Seeks out rivals and attacks cells or two queens
may fight.
• Initiates mating flights at 5-6 days of age
53
 Biological Role of the Queen
• Reproduction - egg laying
– At an age 5-6 days (adult virgin) she leaves the hive and
flies some distance to a drone congregation area (DCA),
where she mates with up to 20–30 drone bees but
usually fewer.
– As soon as the queen has stored enough sperm in her
sperm sac or spermatheca, she returns to hive & starts
life as queen bee of colony.
– She meets drones from many different colonies, thus
helping to maintain genetic diversity and preventing
inbreeding.
• Production of pheromones (queen substance)
 Pheromones are chemical substances (or blends of substances) secreted by
an animal to the outside that affect the behavior or physiology of other
animals of the same species 54
 maintain social order and allow workers to determine queen presence
 prevent worker ovary development
 Workers
• Form bulk of the population
• Functionally sterile females
– Normally does not lay eggs
– If she does, they will be drone
• Perform all duties and labor for maintenance of the
colony
• Develop from a fertilized egg laid by the queen
Labor Activities of Workers
• perform all duties and labor for maintenance of the
colony, including:
- feeding, care of the young (nurse activities)
- comb building and nest construction
- protection of the colony
- maintenance of hive, internal environment
- collection and storage of food
55
Labor Activities of Workers
• Brood care:
workers provide all of the care and feeding of the larvae. Workers seal the cell
with a wax cap before the larva pupates.
• Nest construction:
workers build the comb which forms the internal structure of the hive. The
comb is made from beeswax, a natural wax secreted from glands on the
abdomen of workers.
• Maintenance of the nest:
Bees are careful about nest hygiene; clean cells before reuse and remove debris
and dead bees.
• Workers are responsible for Environmental control.
They will fan at the entrance to circulate fresh air into the hive if carbon dioxide
levels get too high or if temperatures rise above acceptable levels.
• Guard Activities: workers serve as guards at the hive entrance to protect the
nest from intruders. Guard bees will attack and sting. 56
Labor Activities of Workers
• Collection, Handling and Storage of Food:
– Bees collect nectar and pollen from flowers as food.
Nectar is carried internally in the honey stomach. Pollen
is picked up by the special body hairs as a bee visits a
flower.
 Honeybees as Foragers and Pollinators
• Honeybees are efficient foragers and have a dance
language system to recruit other bees to profitable food
sources.
• The dance language allows bees to provide information
on the direction and distance of food sources to other
hive members.
• The dances are preformed on the comb in the hive.
• Nectar is converted into honey by workers in the hive.
• When the honey is ripe and the cells have been filled, the
workers cap the cells with a wax capping.
• Pollen is carried on the hind legs of the worker when 57
foraging.
• Pollen is stored in cells and serves as the source of proteins,
fats and minerals.
Labor Activities of Workers

Cleaning Social organization and the division of labor:

Brood • The system is based on age and physiological
care development; each worker performs in
succession the various labor tasks required for
Comb the colony to function.
building

Guarding • A worker acts as her own informant,

patrolling the hive and responding to labor
needs if she is able.
Foraging
Drones
• Males: larger than workers, large eyes, no sting
• Hatch from unfertilized eggs, reared in larger cells, longer development
time (24 days)
• Only function - reproductive
• Reach sexual maturity at about 12 days of age and initiate mating flights

Drone Biology
• Drones not reared all year - only spring and summer
• Number of drones dependent on colony strength and condition
• Drones “kicked-out” in fall - “Fall Drone Massacre”

59
 Mating of the Honeybee

• Virgin queens leave the

hive to mate, seeking
males at drone
congregation areas.
• Mating occurs in flight.
• Drone congregation
areas remain stable over
a period of years.
60
 Types of beekeeping (HBPS)

1. Forest beekeeping
• It is the intermediate stage b/n honey hunting and back yard
beekeeping in its developmental stages.
2. Traditional backyard beekeeping
• Some sort of safeguarding made for the bees than forest.
• Very common and widely practiced method of bee keeping.
Adv.
• Its construction is very simple, constructed from locally available
materials,
• Cheap in cost and not require skilled manpower.
Disadv.
• Inconvenient to inspect - Very small in size
 3. Transitional /Top bar Hive beekeeping
• Is one of the improved methods of keeping bees using top bar
hives. It is 3.2cm wide and 48.3cm long & arranged across the
hive top.
Advantages
• It can be opened easily and quickly.
• The bees are guided by following the line of the top bars.
• The top bars are easily removed & enables beekeeper to
work fast.
• The top bars are easy to construct than frames.
• Top bars are simpler to build with frames.
• The combs can be replaced and allows to examine the
condition of colony.
• Honey combs can be removed with out disturbing combs.
• The hive can be suspended with wires to protect against
predictors
Disadvantages
• Top bar hives are more expensive than traditional hives.
• Combs suspended from the top bars are more apt to break
off than which are building within frames. This makes it
difficult to transport colonies hive in vehicles especially on
bad roads for long distances.
• The honey harvested from top bar hive is less in quality
than frame
4. Improved (Modern) Beekeeping
• Used in different country.
• These hives differ in the number and size of frames
• These frame hives has component like, bottom board, the
brood chamber (base hive,) the super (honey chamber,) the
inner and outer cover which are frequently grouped as hive
bodies.
Advantages
• 15-20kg amount of honey produced which vary from 0-60 kg/hive
• Good quality of honey, than transitional and traditional bee keeping.
• This method of beekeeping helps swarming control by sparing the hives,
Seasonal inspection
• It is possible (convenient) to make hive manipulation and search solution
for the problems in the hive (to bees)
• It is possible to undertake migratory beekeeping (moving the bees from
place to place:
- To search for available honeybees flowering plants
- For pollination of certain fruits and cultivated crops.

Disadvantages
• The equipments of modern methods is relatively expensive.
• It requires skilled manpower to prepare the modern hives.
• The equipment needs very specific precaution.
Bee Products and their uses
1. Honey
• Honey is the sweet, viscous Juice usually collected
in the largest quantities from the beehive.
• It is found in cells of the honeybee comb.
• Matured (ripe) honey is usually found in sealed
combs and can be kept indefinitely;
• unsealed honey is not matured and therefore
ferments shortly after it is harvested.
• The bees collects nectar from flowers and then
processes it in the hive and packs it in comb
cells. 68
Floral honey

• Honey production and colony development are directly related to floral sources
in the immediate area of apiary.

• Major nectar flows depend on a few plant species that yield nectar abundantly
and are readily available.

• Besides the two/three main annual sources, there should be a great variety of
minor plants yielding both pollen & nectar throughout the season to support the
colonies between the main flows.

• Large acreages of flowering plants are needed for bees to produce surplus honey.

• Planting crops just for their nectar and pollen yields is not usually 69

economical.
 Bee wax
• Beeswax is the substance used by bees to construct their nests. Young honeybees
make it, which release it as a liquid from specific wax glands.
• When worker bees are 14 to 18 days old, they begin to produce wax. When wax
comes into touch with air, it solidifies and creates scales, which look as tiny wax
flakes on the bee's underside.
• One kilogramme of wax is made up of approximately one million wax scales. Bees
utilise wax to create their comb's well-known hexagonal cells, which are a
remarkably robust and efficient structure.
• The comb cells are used by bees to store honey and pollen, as well as the queen's
eggs and the development of young bees.
Uses of Bee wax
• The candle business is the primary user of this product.
• Comb foundation sheets are made with this tool.
• Cold creams, lipsticks, and rouges are some of the cosmetics that include this
ingredient.
• It's used in the pharmaceutical and fragrance industries (ointments, capsules, pill
coating and deodorants)
• Used to waterproof shoe polish, furniture, and other items.
• Adhesives, chewing gums, inks, and other products include it.
Bee Venom
• The sting of a worker bee is connected to a poison sac
that stores the venom. A newly emerging bee is unable
to sting because the sting is not fully chitinized and
hence cannot be inserted
Uses of Bee Venom
• Apitherapy, which involves causing bees to sting the
patient, can be used to treat rheumatism.
• Rheumatism can be treated with venom administered
subcutaneously.
• Apitoxin, Vaseline, and salicylic acid (1:10:1)
ointment can be administered to afflicted
regions.
• It stimulates cardiac muscle contractions, and
lowers blood pressure.
• Neurosis, endoarteriosis, endoarthritis, and
neuragliacan all be cured with it.
• As anti-allergents, antihistamine creams or injections
are utilised.
 10.Fishery
• Fish resources refers to elements of a natural
aquatic resource which can be legally caught by
fishing.
• It means any one or more stocks or species of
fish and aquatic life.
• Fisheries +Resources= Fisheries resources
 Importance of fishery resources
• Source of food
• Economy, trade and transportation
• Recreation
• Biodiversity
• Medical potential/drug
• Climate
 Fisheries impact on resources

• Over fishing and by catch

• Habitat damage
• Climate change
• Marine Pollution Drainage
• Illegal fishing methods
The need to conserve fishery resources
• To maintain ecosystem health, integrity and
sustainability
• Make decision regarding balancing human
needs with resource productivity
requirements.
• Species sustainability keeping biomass levels
above levels where recruitment could be
affected.