PRESENTATION OF DATA

Introduction
In this unit, you will learn ways of presenting data in statistics. In statistics,
the presentation of data refers to the manner in which data is organized and
displayed to facilitate understanding and analysis. The goal is to
communicate information effectively to students, whether it's through
visualizations, tables, or other formats. Here, you will be learning about
tables, charts, and graphs.

When raw data are collected, they are arranged numerically by

distributing them into classes or categories in order to determine
the number of individuals belonging to each class. It is important
to present data in tables, charts and diagrams in order to
understand the distribution of a dataset, and to illustrate the
relationship existing between the variables under examination.
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 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
o Define and identify clearly the terms used in data
presentation
o Construct tables, charts and graphs to display
datasets
o Interpret different tables, charts and graphs to
observe relationships between data points.

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 Basic definitions of terms
Variable: A characteristic of a population with the ability
to assume different values.
Types: Continuous Variable (measurable within a given
range, e.g., height) and Discrete Variable (changes by
steps, typically countable, e.g., number of cars).
Class Interval: A subdivision of the total range of values
a continuous variable may assume, symbolized by a class
(e.g., 0-9, 10-19).
Class Limit: End points of a class interval, consisting of
Lower Class Limit and Upper Class Limit. An open class
interval lacks either limit (e.g., less than 25, 25 and
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 Basic definitions of terms

Class Boundaries: Demarcation points

between class intervals, illustrated by the
midpoint between lower and upper limits (e.g.,
class boundary of 10-19 is 9.5 – 19.5).

Cumulative Frequency: The sum of the

frequency of a particular class and the
frequencies of the classes before it.

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 Frequency tables
A collection of facts on its own is extremely difficult to
interpret. The data contains a lot of information, yet it's
difficult to see. We need ways to understand the data's
key qualities and describe it in useful ways. A frequency
table is a tabular representation of a dataset that shows
the frequency of each individual value or interval. It
divides data into categories and displays the amount of
occurrences (frequency) for each.
Frequency tables are particularly useful for summarizing
and presenting categorical or discrete numerical data.

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 Types of tables
Frequency Table: A display of counts or frequencies of various
categories or values within a dataset, particularly beneficial for
categorical data.
Procedure for Forming Frequency Distribution Tables
 Determine the range (R) = L – S where L = largest observation
in the raw data; and S = smallest observation in the raw data.
 Determine the appropriate number of classes or groups (K)
where K = 1 +3.322log(n) where n = number of observations.
 Determine the width w where (w = R/K)
 Determine the numbers of observations falling into each class
interval i.e. find the class frequencies.

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 Example 1

In this example:
The first column represents intervals of scores.
The "Frequency" column shows the number of students who
scored within each interval.
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 Example 2
The following are the marks of 50 students in STS 102:
48 70 60 47 51 55 59 63 68 63 47 53
72 53 67 62 64 70 57 56 48 51 58 63 65
62 49 64 53 59 63 50 61 67 72 56 64 66 49
52 62 71 58 53 63 69 59 64 73 56.
(a) Construct a frequency table for the above data.
(b) Answer the following questions using the table
obtained:
(i) How many students scored between 51 and 62?
(ii) How many students scored above 50?
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 Types of tables
Contingency Table: A contingency table is used to show
the joint distribution of two categorical variables. It shows
the frequency of each combination of values.
Example:

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 Types of tables
Cross-tabulation table: Similar to a contingency table,
a cross-tabulation table displays the relationship between
two categorical variables, often with additional statistics.
Example:

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 Types of tables
Summary Statistics Table: It summarizes key statistics
of a numerical variable, such as mean, median, standard
deviation, minimum, and maximum.
Example:

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 Charts
In statistics, a chart is a visual display of data to illustrate and
interpret patterns, trends, and relationships within the data.
Charts are important tools for presenting information in a clear
and concise manner, making it easier for people to understand
complex data sets.

The choice of chart has to do with the nature of the data and the
specific goals of the analysis. A good application of charts
enhances data interpretation and communication, allowing for
better insights and decision-making.

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 Types of Charts
Bar Charts: A bar chart can be defined as a graphical
representation of data, quantities, or numbers using bars or strips.
They are used to compare and contrast different types of data,
frequencies, or other measures of distinct categories of data. For
example,

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 Types of Charts
Horizontal Bar Charts: When the given data is represented via
horizontal bars on a graph (chart) paper such graphs are known as
horizontal bar charts. These horizontal rectangular bars show the
measures of the given data. In this type, the categories of the data
are marked on the x-axis and y-axis. The y-axis category shows
the horizontal representation of the bar chart.

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 Types of Charts
Vertical Bar Charts: When the given data is represented via
vertical bars on a graph (chart) paper it is known as a vertical bar
chart. These vertical rectangular bars represent the measure of
data. The rectangular bars are vertically drawn on the x-axis and
the y-axis. These rectangular bars represent the quantity of the
variables written on the x-axis.

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 Properties of a Bar Chart
 The rectangular bars in a bar chart can be drawn horizontally or
vertically.

 In a bar chart, horizontal (or vertical) rectangular bars should

have equal width and space between them.

 The height of the rectangular bars in a bar chart is equivalent to

the given data it represents.

 The bar chart has two axes, the x-axis, and the y-axis.

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 Example 1
The number of children in four different batches of an
educational institute is given below. Represent data on a
bar chart Batches Number of
children
Batch 1 70

Batch 2 80

Batch 3 90

Batch 4 110

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SOLUTION

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 Pie Chart
A pie chart is a type of graph representing data in a circular form,
with each slice of the circle representing a fraction or
proportionate part of the whole. Pie charts are commonly used to
show the distribution of a set of data points across different
categories or to represent the components of a whole dataset.

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 Uses of Pie Chart
 In a business, it is used to compare the growth
areas such as profit and loss.
 In school, pie charts are used to show the time
allotted to each section, the grades of students in
a form of percentages, etc.
 Pie charts are used in comparing the relative size
of data of people owning the same vehicles,
similar houses, etc.
 They are used to represent the marketing and
sales data for the comparison of brands.
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 Example 1
Construct a pie chart to visually display the favourite fruits of the
students in a class based on the given data: Mango - 45; Orange -
30; Plum - 15; Pineapple - 30; Melon – 30

Solution Category Degree Pie chart

Mango 108

Orange 72

Plum 36

Pineapple 72
Mango Orange Plum Pineapple Melon

Melon 72
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 Graphs
A statistical graph is defined as the pictorial representation of
statistical data in graphical form. The statistical graphs are used to
represent a set of data to make it easier to understand and
interpret statistical information. The different types of graphs that
are commonly used in statistics are given below.

Line Graph
A graph that utilizes points and lines to represent change over
time is defined as a line graph. In other words, it is a chart that
shows a line joining several points or a line that shows the relation
between the points. The diagram depicts quantitative data
between two changing variables with a straight line or curve that
joins a series of successive data points.
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 Histogram
A histogram chart displays the frequency of discrete and
continuous data in a dataset using connected rectangular
bars. Here, the number of observations that fall into a
predefined class interval represented by a rectangular bar.

Histograms are widely used in statistics and data

analysis to understand the central tendency, spread, and
shape of a dataset

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 Types of Histogram
Uniform histogram: A uniform distribution reveals that the
number of classes is too small, and each class has the same
number of elements. It may involve distribution that has several
peaks.

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 Types of Histogram
Bimodal Histogram: If a histogram has two peaks, it is said to be
bimodal. Bimodality occurs when the data set has observations on
two different kinds of individuals or combined groups if the centre
of the two separate histograms are far enough to the variability in
both the data sets.

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 Types of Histogram
Symmetric Histogram: A symmetric histogram is also called a
bell-shaped histogram. When you draw the vertical line down the
centre of the histogram, and the two sides are identical in size and
shape, the histogram is said to be symmetric.

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 Types of Histogram
Probability Histogram: A Probability Histogram shows a pictorial
representation of a discrete probability distribution. It consists of a
rectangle centered on every value of x, and the area of each
rectangle is proportional to the probability of the corresponding
value.

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Difference between Bar Graph and
Histogram
Histogram Bar Graph

It is a two- It is a one-

dimensional figure dimensional
figure
The frequency is The height
shown by the area of shows the
each rectangle frequency and
the width has no
It shows rectangles significance.
touching each other It consists of
rectangles
separated from
each other with
equal spaces

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 References/Further Readings

McGraw-Hill. Spiegel, M. R., Schiller, J. J., & Srinivasan, R. A.

(2013). Schaum's Outlines Probability & Statistics (4th ed.).
McGraw-Hill. 31/05/2021, 1)02 AM about:blank Page 2 of 5

Spiegel, M. R., & Stephens, L. J. (2008). Schaum's Outline of

Theory and Problems of Statistics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

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THANK YOU

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