Challenges

associated
with
Ammonia
Combustion

Presented by :- Dharmik S Rathod

(Graduate Student at Virginia Tech)
Objective
• There is a growing demand in the industry to use less carbon-intense fuels for power generation
to reduce the CO & CO2 emission and to help the world achieve Net-Zero Carbon emissions by
2050.
• Ammonia(NH3) is seen as a viable alternative fuel due to its versatile uses in the following cases:
• NH3 can be used to transport Hydrogen(H2).
• Since the chemical composition of NH3 is carbon free, therefore can be directly used for power generation.
• Also, many modern-day aftertreatment methods use ammonia to reduce emission.
• Additionally, Ammonia is also one the world most produced chemicals with a well-recognized
production, transportation and storage infrastructure, making it easy to accrue by the masses.
• But with low flame speed, high ignition energy and low energy density, Ammonia Combustion
posses many challenges. Not to mention the high risks of producing NOx and N2O emission have
also imposed significant constrains in the development of these systems.
• This presentation attempt to outlines the various challenges related to Ammonia Combustion and
the mitigation strategies which are currently being investigated.
 Combustor
Configuration
Combustor Configuration
• Rocha et al [1], investigated three modern stationary gas turbine concepts, using
reaction network which were modelled using Cantera as 1-D axisymmetric rector.
• The three concepts are:
• Lean-burn Dry Low Emission (DLE)
• Rich-burn, Quick-quench and Lean-burn (RQL)
• Moderate or Intense Low Oxygen Dilution (MILD)
• Various parameters were evaluated over a range of equivalence ratio and the
results are published in this study.
Combustor Configuration
• Upon investigation, Rocha et al [1] found that DLE is inadequate for NH3 combustion due
to low flame speeds and high NOx emission.
• RQL showed the best performance out of all three with the following enhancements:
• Global combustion efficiency reached up to 99.09% for Ø = 1.3.
• NOx emission as low as 50 ppm where observed.
• And unburnt NH3 where negligible.
• MILD combustion concept exhibits a very good potential as well. However, achieving
Ultra-Low NOx levels required high levels of dilution, which according to the author
possess difficulties in designing and operations.
• Since RQL is deemed to be the configuration apt for Ammonia combustion, more details
for the RQL from this study are presented in here.
Rich-Burn, Quick Quench and Lean-Burn
(RQL)

Schematic of the RQL combustor Concept

Rich-Burn, Quick Quench and Lean-Burn
(RQL)
• The above slide shows the schematic of the RQL combustor concept which was utilized by
Rocha et al [1] in the study.
• Two stages combustor configuration, with rich conditions experienced by Combustor 1 and lean
condition experienced by Combustor 2 was modelled in Cantera.
• The mixer in this study is modelled, either by using a non-reacting well-stirred reactor (Mixer I)
and reactive gas chemistry with very short residence time (Mixer II).
• The flame speeds, NOx emission and Unburnt NH3, and exit temperature generated using this
network reactors are shown next over a range of equivalence ratio (Ø).
• It can be shown that Low NOx emission and unburnt NH3 can be found for the operating range
between Ø = 1.10 to 1.20.
• RQL has been sort out by many researcher as the most efficient combustor configuration for
Ammonia Combustion. This is also echoed in the further part of this presentation as majority of
studies in this presentation use RQL configuration.
 Rich-Burn, Quick Quench and Lean-Burn
(RQL)

Slightly lower NOx

level is observed
at the exit of
Combustor 2 for
both the
configuration at
near
Stoichiometric
Conditions
conditions.

Predicted results for the RQL combustor as a function of the equivalence ratio.
Operating Conditions :- P0 = 20Bar & T0 = 500K
Laminar Flame
Speed
 Laminar Flame Speed

• One of the significant challenges with Ammonia (NH3)

combustion presents is the low laminar flame speeds,
reaching as low as 7 cm/s, which constitutes
approximately 1/5th that of methane (CH4). This
necessitates novel design approaches to ensure flame
stability.
• In a recent study by Karan and Dayma et al [2], 9
different mechanism were investigated against
experimental data.
• The results shown here suggest that only two
mechanism, i.e. Nakamura and Stagni, were able to
predict the laminar flame speed accurately within ± 5%
error bar of the experimental flame speeds.
• This shows the need for developing reduced order Comparison of experimental flame speeds of NH3 /O2/Ar
chemical kinetic mechanism for further optimization of mixtures at ϕ = 1.1 , T0 = 300K , P0 = 3bar with different
the overall combustor geometry, whilst detail kinetic mechanisms.
mechanism are need for validation studies.
Laminar Flame Speed
• Though flame stability has imposed some contains on efficient
combustion of NH3, there are couple of methods which are
explored to mitigate the low blow-off limits.
• One of the approaches is to blends of NH3-CH4 or NH3-H2 to
increase the flame stability limit by increasing the Lower heating
value.
• A possible design solution which is proposed by Okafor et al [3],
was to inject NH3 at an inclination as apposed to the
conventional axial injection.
• The plot shown here represents the inlet air velocity (Umean) on
the y-axis and equivalence ratio for primary combustor (Ø) on
the x-axis.
• It can be clearly indicated that with inclined injection of NH3 at
Blow-off limits of the non-premixed NH3-air flames. fuel-rich conditions, a stable flame can be sustained at high inlet
Operating Conditions :- P0 = 1Bar & T0 = 298K air velocity as compared to the results from axial injection
(0deg).
 Emission
Characteristic
Emission Characteristics
• The plot shown in the right is a continuation
from the investigation of Okafor et al [3]. Note
the equivalence ratio (Ø overall) reported here is
the global equivalence ratio rather primary
combustor equivalence ratio as reported
previously.
• The inclined injection shows better emission
levels for the range of equivalence ratio
investigated in this study.
• Also, it can be noted that, the increase in
Combustor inlet temperature (CIT) to 500K
showed the lowest emission levels across the
entire range.
Variations of emissions and COT with Ø overall for different θ and CIT.
Operating Condition :- P0 = 1Bar
Emission Characteristics
• It is well understood through multiple sensitivity analysis conducted by various studies
( Bozo et al [4], Mashruk et al [5] & Mashruk et al [6]) that the NOx and N2O emission
characteristics are highly depended on O/H radial pool, with opposing effects on the
generation and mitigation of the NOx and N2O levels.
• A very recent study conducted by Gubbi et al [7] was on investigation of the theoretical
minima for NOx emission in NH3 combustion with the effects of various parameters.
• Similar reactor network model as shown for RQL in pervious slide was developed in Cantera
with Mei et al [8] chemical kinetic mechanism.
• The next slide shows the variation of NOx emissions through the different stages of RQL as a
function of exit temperature, combustor pressure, and global residence time.
• The pink line in these plots shows the NOx emissions from a single-stage, lean, premixed
NH3 combustion system for the same condition. Note that the reported emission values are
divided by 10.
 Emission Characteristics

Minimum NO levels as a function of exit Minimum NO at various combustor pressures Minimum NO at various global residence times
temperature (P = 2 bar & τglobal = 20 ms). (Texit = 1900 K & τglobal = 20 ms). (Texit = 1900 K & P = 20 bar).

• Plots show a high dependency on NOx emission with combustor pressure and global residence time.
• Therefore, a combustor system with high operating pressures and good flame stability for low flame speeds is required. An
adequate residence is also required to meet the current EPA standards for NOx emission with NH3 combustion.
• The authors also highlighted the practical implications for achieving the required operating pressure and residence time,
both have significant capital cost implications.
 Emission Characteristics
• One another method which brought from past, is to introduce
steam to reduce the NOx generated by the primary combustor.
• Pugh et al[9], showed the influence of steam in a premixed
swirling NH3/H2 flame. Steam was introduced at four distinct
humidified fractions: WL1 = 0, WL2 = 0.2, WL3 = 0.4 and WL 4 =
0.6 g/s, at Ø= 1.2.
• The results indicate a reduction in NOx levels with increase in
steam humidification fraction, with large uncertainties for the
experimental data.
• This approach need to be further investigated with details of
different emission characteristics for other species like N2O and
unburnt NH3.
• Addition of steam reduces flame speed and adiabatic flame
temperature, leading to poor flame stability and narrow
operating range. Design optimization may be required to achieve
viable systems which can be utilized in real world operations. Experimental (markers) and modelled (lines) NOx
concentrations against Ø with increased humidification.
Operating Condition : - P = 1.05Bar & T = 423 5K
 Liquid Ammonia
Spray Combustion
Liquid Ammonia Spray Combustion
• Ammonia is stored as a liquid in modern-day industry. But the use of gaseous ammonia
for flame stability and reducing emissions has been recommended.
• Though this imposes new contains for the development of NH3 combustor technologies
as efficient and large vaporizer and accumulator may be need for to run these systems.
Furthermore, vaporization would prolong the start-up time of gas turbines fueled with
NH3 and would also have initial cost implications.
• Okafor et al[10], attempted to demonstrate liquid ammonia spray combustion in a micro
gas turbine with two-stage RQL combustor configuration.
• The rig was previously developed for gaseous ammonia combustion but was retrofitted
with a pressure swirl atomizer.
• Due the high ignition energy requirement for NH3 combustion, the primary combustor
was ignited with CH4-air non-premixed mixture and then switched to a bend of NH3-CH4
with the ammonia heat fraction ranging form 0.2-1.
Liquid Ammonia Spray Combustion
• The emission characteristic for the range of equivalence ratio is shown in the next slide.
• One of the outcomes that was captured was the effects of liner wall temperature on flame stability
and emission.
• Two different liner combustor configuration were utilized namely:
• Combustor A – With film cooling
• Combustor B – Without film cooling
• Also, a plot for various NH3 heat fraction vs liner wall temperature were shown, and the authors have
highlighted the regions of stable and nonstable flame.
• It was found combustor B performed better, showing lower emission for almost each case. Also, high
linear temperature was need to stabilize a flame at high NH3 heat fraction.
• But the authors pointed that the non-uniformity of the wall temperature in the primary combustion
zone suggests significant inhomogeneity in mixture formation and an asymmetry in the flow, creating
regions of low flame temperature that encouraged high unburned NH3, NO and N2O emissions for
pure liquid ammonia combustion.
• This showcases the need for designing a new liner for the NH3 combustion system with the constrains
of maintaining elevated uniform temperatures.
 Liquid Ammonia Spray Combustion

Blowoff limits based on heat fraction of NH3 and liner wall temperature, showing the
extension of the stable flame regions to pure liquid ammonia combustion by combustor B.

Variation of emissions of unburned NH3, NO, and

Operating Condition : - P = 2.5Bar & T = 500C for NH3 N2O for combustor A and B.
P = 1Bar & T = 20C for Air
Liquid Ammonia Spray Combustion
• It was noted out by the authors that , further improvement in mixture homogeneity and
means for enhancing vaporization with minimal heat extraction from the flame is needed
with the help of novel injector designs.
• Also, sufficient residence time between the two combustors is required to improve the
combustion efficiency in the primary combustor zone and reduce the amount of
unburned NH3 that would be oxidized in secondary combustor.

• These challenges needs to address by the industry in making a viable and efficient system
to move towards Ammonia Gas Turbine Power Plants.
Future Works
 Future Works
• Many challenges for Ammonia Combustion system have been identified and are listed below:
• More detailed chemical mechanisms for validation while reduced order mechanisms for optimization studies are required.
• The rich combustor (1st stage combustor) needs to be thoroughly investigated at real world condition.
• Understanding the quenching and mixing process for products formed by rich combustor (i.e N2+H2+H2O+NH3) and air introduced in
Quench/Mixing stage. Possible area for design optimization to facilitate mixture homogeneity needs to be identified.
• Limits for the residence time and NOx emission must be determined.
• Characteristics of lean combustor (or 2nd stage combustor) at real world gas turbine condition must be investigated.
• Finding the best method for the start-up process of a RQL system with emphases on the initial emission levels and possible mitigation
solutions.
• Investigation on RQL combustor configuration at different OPR’s for industrial gas turbine (i.e. 20-30) and aircraft engines (i.e. 50-80) is
required with data on combustion efficiency and emission characteristics for the load condition ranging from Idle to full-load.
• Possible Recuperation cycles for increasing CIT, achieving uniform liner temperature and turbine blade cooling can be explored to improve the
performance of RQL-NH3 combustion process.
• There is a need to understand the reforming technology capabilities and if the rate at which the reactors will reform NH3 would be beneficial
for the overall process. If so, new area of expertise needs to be developed to use blends of NH3-H2 and designing systems which can co-fire
both pure NH3 and NH3-H2 blends.
• The thermodynamic advantages of gaseous NH3 needs to be weighted against the initial cost and land implications incurred due to the need
for a vaporizer and accumulator. A sound engineering decision needs to be agreed upon by the industry for the use of either pre-vaporized
NH3 or liquid NH3.
• Design studies for liquid NH3 injectors with special consideration towards vaporizing liquid NH3 needs to be carried out.
• It must also be noted that the materials selection and industry DFM constrains will also impose significant challenges in developing
ammonia combustion systems.
Future Works
• If we are able tackle these challenges with the imposed constrains then future for Ammonia
Combustion System is somewhat described with the block diagram shown below :

Tuning the Heat Fraction of

Piloting with Switch to Cracking Switch to NH3-
NH3, in NH3-H2 blend as per
NH3-CH4 bend pure NH3 NH3 to H2 H2 blend
Load requirements

• The above system will impose many different challenges on the power generating industry.
• However, with the support of researchers around the world and industry leaders, Ammonia
Combustion could be a key technology for achieving Net Carbon Zero by 2050.
About me
 About Me
Dharmik S Rathod
• Undergraduate in Mechanical Engineering from NMIMS Mukesh Patel School of Technology
Management and Engineering.
• Currently pursuing MS in Aerospace Engineering with thesis at Virginia Polytechnic and State
University.
Objective :- To work on innovative projects and technologies with GE Vernova, which
contributing towards efficient extraction of energy, working with industry on Green Energy
production systems and utilizing Sustainable Energy sources to preserve our environment and
help achieving NetCarbonZero by 2050
Thesis Topic :- Challenges of integrating a Rotating Detonation Combustor (RDC) with a Gas
Turbine using a Non-Optimized Diffuser and important design consideration for Row-1 Blades.

Previous Experience :-
• Tesla Motor Work – Mechanical Design Engineer Intern. Fremont, California.
• Worked towards the development of new Tesla AirVent which work on conda-effect.
• Patent was filed by Tesla for this invention.
• Cummins Inc – Special Performance Integration Co-op. Columbus, Indiana.
• Testing X-platform engines for validation of new calibration.
• Worked with global teams on certification documentation.
• Assisted in transparency study for new emission control modules contributing
towards the sales of more than 65,000 engine worldwide in a fiscal year.
 Thank You
&
Let's Have the
Energy to
Change the
World!
References
[1] – Rocha, R. C.; Costa, M.; Bai, X.-S. Combustion and Emission Characteristics of Ammonia under Conditions Relevant to Modern Gas Turbines.
Combust. Sci. Technol. 2021, 193 (14), 2514−2533.
[2] – Karan, A., Dayma, G., Chauveau, C., & Halter, F. (2021, December). High-pressure and temperature ammonia flame speeds. In 13th Asia-
Pacific Conference on Combustion (ASPACC).
[3] – Okafor, E. C., Somarathne, K. K. A., Hayakawa, A., Kudo, T., Kurata, O., Iki, N., & Kobayashi, H. (2019). Towards the development of an
efficient low-NOx ammonia combustor for a micro gas turbine. Proceedings of the combustion institute, 37(4), 4597-4606.
[4] – Božo, M. G., Mashruk, S., Zitouni, S., & Valera-Medina, A. (2021). Humidified ammonia/hydrogen RQL combustion in a trigeneration gas
turbine cycle. Energy Conversion and Management, 227, 113625.
[5] – Mashruk, S., Okafor, E. C., Kovaleva, M., Alnasif, A., Pugh, D., Hayakawa, A., & Valera-Medina, A. (2022). Evolution of N2O production at lean
combustion condition in NH3/H2/air premixed swirling flames. Combustion and Flame, 244, 112299.
[6] – Mashruk, S., Kovaleva, M., Alnasif, A., Chong, C. T., Hayakawa, A., Okafor, E. C., & Valera-Medina, A. (2022). Nitrogen oxide emissions
analyses in ammonia/hydrogen/air premixed swirling flames. Energy, 260, 125183.
[7] – Gubbi, S., Cole, R., Emerson, B., Noble, D., Steele, R., Sun, W., & Lieuwen, T. (2023). Air Quality Implications of Using Ammonia as a
Renewable Fuel: How Low Can NO x Emissions Go?. ACS Energy Letters, 8, 4421-4426.
[8] – Mei, B.; Zhang, X.; Ma, S.; Cui, M.; Guo, H.; Cao, Z.; Li, Y. Experimental and kinetic modeling investigation on the laminar flame propagation
of ammonia under oxygen enrichment and elevated pressure conditions. Combustion and Flame 2019, 210, 236-246.
DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2019.08.033.
[9] – Pugh, D., Bowen, P., Valera-Medina, A., Giles, A., Runyon, J., & Marsh, R. (2019). Influence of steam addition and elevated ambient
conditions on NOx reduction in a staged premixed swirling NH3/H2 flame. Proceedings of the combustion institute, 37(4), 5401-5409.
[10] – Okafor, E. C., Kurata, O., Yamashita, H., Inoue, T., Tsujimura, T., Iki, N., ... & Kobayashi, H. (2021). Liquid ammonia spray combustion in two-
stage micro gas turbine combustors at 0.25 MPa; Relevance of combustion enhancement to flame stability and NOx control. Applications in
Energy and Combustion Science, 7, 100038.