AVT 3103: ELECTRONIC

FUNDAMENTALS

Diode
Week 2
Dr. Rita Aljadiri
CLO1 Describe the principle elements and application
of semiconductor devices (diodes, transistors and
integrated circuits)
Diode Symbol
 Diode Identification

For example, a semiconductor diode

designated as type 1N345A signifies a
twoelement diode (1) of semiconductor
material (N) that is an improved version
• Thus 1 designates a diode; 2 designates a transistor (which
may be considered as made up of two diodes); and 3
designates a tetrode (a four-element transistor).
• The letter "N" following the first number indicates a
semiconductor.
• The 2- or 3-digit number following the letter "N" is a
serialized identification number.
• If needed, this number may contain a suffix letter after the
last digit. For example, the suffix letter "M" may be used to
describe matching pairs of separate semiconductor devices
or the letter "R" may be used to indicate reverse polarity.
Other letters are used to indicate modified versions of the
device which can be substituted for the basic numbered
unit.
Identify the semiconductor devices :

2N234A
3N123M
1N401R
The standard diode color code system
is shown in Figure 1-17. Take, for
example, a diode with brown, orange,
and white bands at one terminal and
figure out its identification number. With
brown being a "1," orange a "3," and
white "9," the device would be
identified as a type 139 semiconductor
diode, or specifically 1N139.

Brown Black Yellow Green ?

Gray Blue Green Green Red ?

 Diode in Series and Parallel
Where needed, Diodes can be arranged in
series and parallel.

In series, the current through each diode is the

same with individual volts drop across each
diode

In parallel, the current is shared between the

diodes but they have the same volts drop
across them
 Rectification

Rectification is the process of converting AC to

DC.

There are three main types of rectifier:

 Half Wave Rectifier

 Full wave rectifier
 Bridge Rectifier
 Rectification
Half Wave Rectifier

The most basic type of rectifier is the Half Wave

Rectifier
 Rectification
Half Wave Rectifier

The diode conducts only on the positive half-

cycle

The half wave rectifier is extremely inefficient

as only half the input power appears at the
output
 Rectification
Full Wave Rectifier

A Full Wave Rectifier uses two diodes and a

centre-tapped Transformer
 Rectification
Full Wave Rectifier

When the input is

positive, point A is
also positive but
point B is negative.
D1 conducts while
D2 is non-
conducting.
Current flows
through the load
(RL) and back to the
zero Volts point at C
 Rectification
Full Wave Rectifier

When the input is

negative, point A is
also negative but
point B is positive.
D2 conducts while
D1 is non-
conducting.
Current flows
through the load
(RL) and back to the
zero Volts point at C
 Rectification
Full Wave Rectifier

The Full Wave Rectifier is more efficient than a

Half Wave Rectifier as it conducts on both of
the input half-cycles.

The disadvantage of this design is the centre-

tapped transformer. This unit is heavier and
more expensive than the un-tapped
equivalent. As only half of the secondary
winding is used at any one time, to obtain the
same output power the transformer must have
twice the power rating
 Rectification
Bridge Rectifier

The Bridge Rectifier is the most common

method of converting AC to DC
 Rectification
Bridge Rectifier

The Bridge Rectifier circuit uses a standard

transformer unit and 4 diodes.
The output is the same as with a full-wave
rectifier but the transformer is a lighter,
cheaper unit.

One pair of diodes conduct on each half-cycle,

providing DC through the load
 Rectification
Bridge Rectifier

On the positive half-cycle diodes D1 and D2

conduct creating a current path through the
load
 Rectification
Bridge Rectifier

On the negative half-cycle, the other two diodes

conduct
 Rectification
Comparison of Rectifier Types

Input Waveform

Output Waveform
Half-Wave Rectifier

Output Waveform
Full-Wave & Bridge
Rectifiers
Note: The ripple frequency of the Output Waveform for both full
wave rectifiers is twice the input frequency
 Power Supply Components
The rectifier is only the first circuit in a power
supply. The output from a rectifier provides
Pulsating DC, while user circuits require a
smooth, regulated DC supply.
Rectifier Output
0

Power Supply
0
Output

Smooth
AC Regulated
Rectifier Filter Regulator DC
 Power Supply Components
The Filter section smoothes the pulsating DC.
The component most often used for this task
is a Smoothing Capacitor (aka Reservoir
Capacitor).
 Power Supply Components

The capacitor charges up while the rectifier

output is rising.
 Power Supply Components
When the rectifier output falls the capacitor
discharges

The capacitor value must be selected so that

the CR time is long compared to the periodic
time of the rectifier output
 Power Supply Components
The Voltage Regulator is designed to provide
a stable output, compensating for fluctuations
in both the power supply and load
A simple regulator can be made using a Zener
diode but most circuits use a dedicated
regulator chip

In order to function
properly the
regulator input must
be a few volts higher
than the required
output
 Types of diodes

1. Zener diode
2. Signal diode
3. LED
4. Photo diode
5. Power Rectifier diode
6. Schottky diode
7. Varistor
8. Varactor
 1. Zener Diode
The Zener diode is designed to operate in Reverse Bias
Zeners have a very well defined Reverse Breakdown
Voltage which can be much lower than a normal diode

The Zener has a heavily doped and comparatively

narrow PN junction

The principal use of a Zener diode is in voltage

regulator circuits

The reverse breakdown voltage can be set during

manufacture by adjusting the level of doping (typically
from around 2.4Volts and upwards).
 Zener Diode
There are a number of circuit symbols used to
identify a Zener diode
 Zener Diode
The reverse breakdown voltage of a Zener
diode is often printed on the side of the device
6V3 Anode
Cathod
e
Zener diode with 6.3V Reverse Breakdown
Voltage

Other Zener
diode examples
 Zener Diode
The conduction graph for a Zener diode is
shown below

Zener
Breakdow I
n Voltage

Note that the reverse voltage is almost

constant for a wide range of current values
 Zener Diode
A simple Zener diode voltage regulator circuit is
shown below
R1

Input Voltage Ouput Voltage

D1

The circuit relies on the fact that the Zener has

an almost constant volts drop across it when
reverse biased.
In order to work properly the supply voltage
must be a few volts higher than the Zener
breakdown voltage.
 Zener Diode
The Zener diode is inefficient as current is
drawn through the device regardless of the load
and power is lost as waste heat.

The Zener generates electrical noise which

creates spikes on the output

Regulators in Integrated Circuit form (e.g. 7805)

are often preferred to Zener circuits
 2. Signal Diode

Signal diodes are common semiconductor

diodes that are typically used in radio signal
processing. They pass small current usually up
to 100 milliamps. (Figure 1-20)
 3. LED
The Light Emitting Diode (LED) is designed to
emit photons when the diode is forward
biased.
All semiconductor junctions emit photons
when electrons and holes recombine – the LED
is made of materials which optimise this
effect.
The colour of the light produced (the energy of
the photon) depends on the materials used to
create the junction.

LED Circuit
Symbol
The intensity of the light is directly
proportional to the amount of current flowing –
more current gives brighter light. LEDs are
available in a variety of colours including blue,
red, yellow, green and infra-red

Examples of Single LEDs

As the LED is a diode it must be placed in
circuit in the correct way. To assist in
identifying the anode from the cathode, one
leg (cathode) is shorter than the other.
On round LEDs, there is a flat on the body
which identifies the cathode.
The materials that LEDs are made of tend to
have either 3 or 5 electrons in their outer
shells. For example, GaAs (Gallium Arsenide)
and InP (Indium Phosphide)
When the LED is forward biased, electrons are
attracted through the device towards the positive
terminal, holes travel in the opposite direction.
When a hole and electron overlap the electron falls
into the hole (hole-electron recombination). However
the electron is in the conduction band and the hole is
in the (lower energy) valency band. As a result the
electron loses energy during the recombination – this
energy is released as a photon.

Hole

Electron

Recombin
ed
The frequency of the emitted light is
dependant on the energy gap between the
conduction and valency bands which is
different for each semiconductor material.
Material Colour Wavelength
Gallium Arsenide Infrared 940nm
Gallium Phosphide Red 635nm
Silicon Carbide/Gallium Nitride Blue 430nm

Some typical LED materials with the

wavelength of the light are shown above
LEDs have a higher forward volts drop than
Silicon or Germanium diodes, usually between
1.6 and 2.5V

LEDs must never be reversed biased otherwise

the device will be damaged. To protect a
diode from becoming reverse biased a normal
diode in reverse-parallel can be used.

LED Protection
LEDs are always used with a series resistor to
limit the current through the device

Example: A 6V supply is used to power an

LED. What value resistor is required if the
maximum forward current is 20mA and the
forward volts drop is 2.2 Volts?
Example: A 6V supply is used to power an
LED. What value resistor is required if the
maximum forward current is 20mA and the
forward volts drop is 2.2 Volts?
Example: A 6V supply is used to power an
LED. What value resistor is required if the
maximum forward current is 20mA and the
forward volts drop is 2.2 Volts?

If the volts drop across the LED is 2.2V, then

the volts drop across the resistor is 3.8V (6 –
2.2)
R = V/I = 3.8/0.02 = 190W
Single LEDs can be combined together to
create more complex displays

One of the most common units used to show

numbers is the 7 Segment Display

0123456789
Multi-segment
displays are
either Common

Inputs
Anode or
Common
Cathode.

In a Common
Cathode, all of
the cathodes are
connected to a
common earth
point and the
Common Cathode 7-segment display
individual
segments are
illuminated by
applying power
Advantages of LEDs over other lighting
sources:
• LEDs are far more efficient than bulbs
• LEDs can be made very small for use on
PCBs
• Very fast ON/OFF time
• Unaffected by rapid ON/OFF cycling
• Can be easily dimmed
• Produce much less heat than other
lighting methods
• Long working life (50,000 hours)
• Less prone to damage from external
shock
• Can be manufactured with a built-in
focussing system
• Does not contain toxic materials
(Mercury in strip lights)
 4. Photodiode
The photodiode is a semiconductor device
which produces an output proportional to the
amount of light striking the PN junction
 Photodiode
There are two modes of operation:

• Photoconductive Mode
• Photovoltaic Mode

Photoconductive. Photovoltaic. No
Reverse Biased. Biasing.
Photoconductive Mode
In this mode the diode is reverse biased. This means
that the depletion zone width can be controlled to make
the photodiode more or less sensitive. As light strikes
the depletion zone electrons become free and current
flows between anode and cathode.

Photovoltaic Mode
In this mode the diode is not biased. The current
generated by light striking the photodiode is restricted
from leaving the device and therefore a potential is
built up. This is the principle of solar cells.
A photodiode is constructed in a similar manner to a
normal diode, but the device has a transparent
window to allow light to strike the depletion layer of
the PN junction

Photodiodes are typically manufactured using Silicon

as the semiconductor material
 5. Power rectifier diode
The rectifier diode is usually used in applications that require
high current, such as power supplies.
The range in which the diode can handle current can vary
anywhere from one ampere to hundreds of amperes.
One common example of diodes is the series of diodes, part
numbers 1N4001 to 1N4007. The "1N" indicates that there is
only one PN junction, or that the device is a diode.
The average current carrying range for these rectifier diodes is
about one ampere and have a peak inverse voltage between
50 volts to 1 000 volts.
Larger rectifier diodes can carry currents up to 300
amperes when forward biased and have a peak
inverse voltage of 600 volts. A recognizable feature
of the larger rectifier diodes is that they are encased
in metal in order to provide a heat sink. Figure 1-27
illustrates a few types of rectifier diodes.
 6. Varicap Diode
The Varicap diode (also known as a Varactor
or Tuning diode) is designed to operate in
Reverse Bias

As the reverse bias on the diode increases, the

depletion layer widens.

The depletion layer acts as a dielectric and the

device displays similar properties as a
capacitor.
Without With Reverse Bias connection
connection
Depletion Zone Depletion Zone
acts as gets wider.
Dielectric
+ -
N P N P

Dielectric Dielectric Gap

Gap gets wider

C = εA
d
 Varicap Diode
As in a capacitor, the capacitance value varies with the distance
between the plates and the dielectric material.

Small reverse bias – narrow depletion layer – high capacitance

High reverse bias – wide depletion layer – low capacitance

Reverse Bias (Volts)
3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

220pF
200pF

Capacitance
180pF
160pF
140pF
120pF
100pF
 Varicap Diode
In the circuit below the reverse bias is
controlled by the potentiometer. The value of
capacitance changes and the resonant
frequency of the circuit also changes

C
L

D
 Varicap Diode
Varicap diodes have replaced mechanical
tuning capacitors due to the cost, size and
reliability

Due to their nature all diodes exhibit

capacitance, however the varicap is specially
constructed to maximise the effect

Mechanical Varicap diodes

Variable Capacitor
 7. Schottky Diode
The Schottky diode is constructed using only
one semiconductor material (N-type) and a
metal barrier. Electrons are the only charge
carriers in this device.
Cathod N Anode
e

Metal - Semiconductor
Barrier
The forward volts drop across this device is 0.15 –
0.45V.
In normal diodes, the device switches off when holes
and electrons recombine – this takes time. The
Schottky diode does not have this limitation and
operates at very high speed
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXEyCf1P0UU&vl=e
 Schottky Diode
Schottky technology is used in other electronic
devices including transistors and integrated
circuits

74LS – Low Power Schottky

74ALS – Advanced Low Power Schottky
 8. Varistor
The Varistor is a device who's resistance
changes with the size of the applied voltage, it
is also known as a VDR (Voltage Dependant
Resistor).

Most varistors are constructed using metallic

oxides (MOV – Metal Oxide Varistor) and are use
in circuit protection.

While fuses and circuit breakers provide

protection from over-current, the MOV provides
protection from over-voltage.

Varistor Circuit
Symbol
 Varistor
The metallic grains which make up the varistor
act like semiconductor junctions and at low
voltages have a high resistance and minimal
current flow.

When the voltage across the varistor exceeds

its rated value the resistance drops sharply and
current flow increases
Varistor conduction curve closely
resemble those of a
semiconductor diode having a
forward and reverse breakdown
point – they can be used with both
ac and dc circuits
 Varistor
Varistors are typically installed in parallel with
the circuit they are protecting
FUSE

VR1 Sensitive Circuit

AC/DC

In this circuit the MOV has a high resistance

at normal voltages, but if the voltage
increases above the rated value the MOV
conducts, current increases and the fuse
ruptures. MOVs can also be used to reduce
sparking on relays and motors and to
protect devices such as transistors.
End of Week 2