Quantum Mechanics

Introduction

There are a few phenomenon which the classical mechanics

failed to explain.

1. Stability of an atom
2. Spectral series of Hydrogen atom
3. Black body radiation

Max Planck in 1900 at a meeting of German

Physical Society read his paper “On the
theory of the Energy distribution law of the
Normal Spectrum”. This was the start of the
revolution of Physics i.e. the start of
Quantum Mechanics.
 Quantum Mechanics

It is a generalization of Classical Physics that includes

classical laws as special cases.

It may be said that the regime of Quantum Physics is the region

of small dimensions.

Just as ‘c’, the velocity of light, is a universal constant, the

Planck's constant h, is also one and characterizes Quantum
Physics.

h 6.65 10  27 erg . sec

h 6.625 10  34 Joule. sec
 Quantum Mechanics

It is able to explain

1. Photo electric effect

2. Black body radiation
3. Compton effect
4. Emission of line spectra

The most outstanding development in modern

science was the conception of Quantum
Mechanics in 1925. This new approach was
highly successful in explaining about the
behavior of atoms, molecules and nuclei.
 Photo Electric Effect
The emission of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated
by light or any other radiation of any wavelength or frequency
(suitable) is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons
are called ‘photo electrons’.
Light
Evacuated
Quartz
tube Metal Collecting
plate _
+ plate

^^^^^^^^ A
 Photo Electric Effect
Experimental findings of the photoelectric effect

1. There is no time lag between the arrival of light at the metal

surface and the emission of photoelectrons.
2. When the voltage is increased to a certain value Vo, the
photocurrent reduces to zero.
3. Increase in intensity increases the number of
photoelectrons but the electron energy remains the same.

3I
Photo 2I
Current
I

Vo Voltage
 Photo Electric Effect
4. Increase in frequency of light increases the energy of the
electrons. At frequencies below a certain critical frequency
(characteristic of each particular metal), no electron is
emitted.

Photo Current

v3
v1

v2
Voltage
 Einstein’s Photo Electric Explanation
The energy of a incident photon is utilized in two ways

1. A part of energy is used to free the electron from the atom

known as photoelectric work function (Wo).
2. Other part is used in providing kinetic energy to the emitted
electron .  1
2
 mv 
2 

1 2
h Wo  mv
2
This is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
 h Wo  KEmax
h h o  KEmax
KEmax h(   o )
If   o , no photoelectric effect

hc
Wo h o 
o
hc 12400 o
o   A
Wo Wo (eV )
 If Vo is the stopping potential, then

KEmax h(   o )

eVo h  h o
h h o
Vo  
e e

The graph with Vo 

on y-axis and on x-axis will be a
straight y mx  c h e
line, in form of . with slope .
 Photons
Einstein postulated the existence of a particle called a photon,
to explain detailed results of photoelectric experiment.

hc
E p h 

Photon has zero rest mass, travels at speed of light

Explains “instantaneous” emission of electrons in photoelectric

effect, frequency dependence.
 Compton Effect
When a monochromatic beam of X-rays is scattered from a
material then both the wavelength of primary radiation
(unmodified radiation) and the radiation of higher wavelength
(modified radiation) are found to be present in the scattered
radiation. Presence of modified radiation in scattered X-rays is
called Compton effect. E ' h '
h ' scattered
sin 
c photon
incident
E h
photon 
 mv cos  h '
cos 
h electron c
p v
c
mv sin  recoiled electron
 From Theory of Relativity, total energy of the recoiled electron
with v ~ c is
E mc 2 K  mo c 2
K mc 2  mo c 2
mo c 2
K  mo c 2
1 v2 c2
 1 
K mo c 2   1
 1  v 2 c 2 

Similarly, momentum of recoiled electron is

mo v
mv 
1 v2 c2
Now from Energy Conversation
 1 
h h 'mo c 2   1 (i)
 1  v 2 c 2 
From Momentum Conversation
h h ' mo v
 cos   cos  (ii) along x-axis
c c 1 v2 c2
and

h ' mo v
0 sin   sin  (iii) along y-axis
c 2
1 v c 2
Rearranging (ii) and squaring both sides
2
 h  h  '  m 2 2
ov
  cos    2 2
cos 
2
(iv)
 c c  1 v c
Rearranging (iii) and squaring both sides
2
 h '
2 2
 mv
 sin    o
sin
2
2
2
 (v)
 c  1 v c
Adding (iv) and (v)
2 2
 h    h  '  2 h 2
 ' m 2 2
ov
     2
cos   2 2 (vi)
 c   c  c 1  v c
From equation (i)
h h ' mo c
  mo c 
c c 1 v2 c2
 On squaring, we get
2 2
 h   h '  2 h 2
 ' m 2 2
oc
  
2 2
  mo c  2
 2hmo (   ' )  2 2
 c   c  c 1  v c
(vii)
Subtracting (vi) from (vii)
2h 2 '
 2
(1  cos  )  2hmo (   ' ) 0
c
2h 2 '
2hmo (   ' )  2 (1  cos  )
c
h '
mo (   ' )  2 (1  cos  )
c
 c c
But  and  ' So,
 '
1 1 h
mo c    (1  cos  )
   '   '
  '   h
mo c  (1  cos  )
  '   '
h
 '    (1  cos  )
mo c
 is the Compton Shift.
It neither depends on the incident wavelength nor on the
scattering material. It only on the scattering angle i.e. 
h is called the Compton wavelength of the electron
mo c and its value is 0.0243 Å.
 Experimental Verification
photon Bragg’s X-ray
Monochromatic Spectrometer
X-ray Source
θ

Graphite
target

1. One peak is found at same

position. This is unmodified radiation
2. Other peak is found at higher
wavelength. This is modified signal of
low energy. 
3.  increases with increase in  .
 Compton effect can’t be observed in Visible
Light
h
  (1  cos  )  0.0243 (1- cosθ) Å
mo c
 is maximum when (1- cosθ) is maximum i.e. 2.
max  0.05 Å
So Compton effect can be observed only for radiation having
wavelength of few Å.

For   1Å  ~ 1%
For   5000Å  ~ 0.001% (undetectable)
 Pair Production

When a photon (electromagnetic energy) of sufficient energy

passes near the field of nucleus, it materializes into an
electron and positron. This phenomenon is known as pair
production.
e

Photon
Nucleus (+ve) e

In this process charge, energy and momentum remains

conserved prior and after the production of the pair.
 The rest mass energy of an electron or positron is 0.51
MeV (according to E = mc2).
The minimum energy required for pair production is thus
1.02 MeV.
Any additional photon energy becomes the kinetic energy of
the electron and positron.
The corresponding maximum photon wavelength is 1.2 pm.
Electromagnetic waves with such wavelengths are called
gamma rays ( ) .
 Pair Annihilation
When an electron and positron interact with each other,
both the particle annihilate converting their mass into
electromagnetic energy in the form of two  - rays photon.

e  e    
Charge, energy and momentum are again conserved. Two
 - photons are produced (each of energy 0.51
MeV plus half the K.E. of the particles) to conserve the
momentum.
 Pair production cannot occur in empty space
From conservation of energy
h 2mo c 2

here mo is the rest mass and  1 1  v c

2 2

e

 pp cos 
h c  p cos
p
e
In the direction of motion of the photon, the momentum is
conserved if
h
2 p cos 
c
 h 2cp cos  (i)
Momentum of electron and positron is
p mo v
Equation (i) now becomes
h 2mo cv cos 
v
h 2mo c   cos 
2

c
But v 1 and cos  1
c
h  2mo c 2
But conservation of energy requires that

h 2mo c 2
Hence it is impossible for pair production to conserve both
the energy and momentum unless some other object is
involved in the process to carry away part of the initial
photon momentum. Therefore pair production cannot occur
in empty space.
 Wave Particle Duality

Light can exhibit both kind of nature; of waves and particles

so the light shows wave-particle dual nature.

In some cases like interference, diffraction and polarization

it behaves as wave while in other cases like photoelectric
and compton effect it behaves as particles (photon).
 De Broglie Waves
Not only the light but every materialistic particle such as
electron, proton or even the heavier object exhibits wave-
particle dual nature.

De-Broglie proposed that a moving particle, whatever its

nature, has waves associated with it. These waves are
called “matter waves”.

Energy of a photon is
E h
For a particle, say photon of mass, m

E mc 2
 mc 2 hv
2 hc
mc 

h

mc
Suppose a particle of mass, m is moving with velocity, v then
the wavelength associated with it can be given by
h h
 or  
mv p
(i) If v 0    means that waves are associated with
moving material particles only.
(ii) De-Broglie wave does not depend on whether the moving
particle is charged or uncharged. It means matter waves are
not electromagnetic in nature.
 Wave Velocity or Phase Velocity
When a monochromatic wave travels through a medium,
its velocity of advancement in the medium is called the
wave velocity or phase velocity (Vp).

Vp 
k
where  2 is the angular frequency

and k 
2 is the wave number.

 Group Velocity
In practice, we come across pulses rather than
monochromatic waves. A pulse consists of a number of
waves differing slightly from one another in frequency.

The observed velocity is, however, the velocity with which

the maximum amplitude of the group advances in a
medium.
So, the group velocity is the velocity with which the energy
in the group is transmitted (Vg).

The individual waves travel “inside” the group with their

phase velocities.
d
Vg 
dk
Relation between Phase and Group Velocity
d d
Vg   (kV p )
dk dk
dV p
Vg V p  k
dk
2 dV p
Vg V p 
 d 2  
1 dV p
Vg V p 
 d 1  
 1 dV p
Vg V p 
 1 

 2 d  
  
dV p
Vg V p  
d
In a Dispersive medium Vp depends on frequency

i.e.  constant
k
dV p
So,  is positive generally (not always).
d
 Vg  V p generally
 dV p
Vg V p  
d

In a non-dispersive medium ( such as empty space)


 constant V p
k
dV p
 0
d
 Vg V p
 Phase Velocity of De-Broglie’s waves
According to De-Broglie’s hypothesis of matter waves
h

mv
2 2mv
wave number k  (i)
 h
If a particle has energy E, then corresponding wave will
have frequency E

h
2E
then angular frequency will be  2 
h
 2mc 2
 (ii)
h
Dividing (ii) by (i)
 2mc 2 h
 
k h 2mv
c2
Vp 
v
But v is always < c (velocity of light)
(i) Velocity of De-Broglie’s waves V p  c (not acceptable)

(ii) De-Broglie’s waves (V p ) will move faster than the

particle velocity (v) and hence the waves would left the
particle behind.
 Group Velocity of De-Broglie’s waves
The discrepancy is resolved by postulating that a moving
particle is associated with a “wave packet” or “wave
group”, rather than a single wave-train.
A wave group having wavelength λ is composed of a
number of component waves with slightly different
wavelengths in the neighborhood of λ.
Suppose a particle of rest mass mo moving with velocity v
then associated matter wave will have
2mc 2 and 2mv mo
 k where m
h h 1 v2 c2
 2mo c 2 2mo v
 2 2
and k
h 1 v c h 1 v2 c2

On differentiating w.r.t. velocity, v

d 2mo v
 (i)

dv h 1  v 2 c 2 3
2

dk 2mo (ii)


dv h 1  v 2 c 2 3
2
 Dividing (i) by (ii)

d dv 2mo v
. 
dv dk 2mo

d
v Vg
dk
Wave group associated with a moving particle also
moves with the velocity of the particle.

Moving particle  wave packet or wave group

 Two-slit Interference Experiment

Slit
1 meter

Laser
Slit Detector
Source

Rate of photon arrival = 2 x 106/sec

Rate of photon detection = 105/sec
Time lag = 0.5 x 10-6 sec
Spatial separation between photons = 0.5 x 10-6 c = 150 m
– Taylor’s experiment (1908): double slit experiment with very dim
light: interference pattern emerged after waiting for few weeks
– interference cannot be due to interaction between photons, i.e.
cannot be outcome of destructive or constructive combination of
photons
 interference pattern is due to some inherent property of each
photon - it “interferes with itself” while passing from source to
screen
– photons don’t “split” –
light detectors always show signals of
same intensity
– slits open alternatingly: get two overlapping single-slit diffraction
– patterns – no to
add detector two-slit interference
determine through which slit photon goes:
 no interference
– interference pattern only appears when experiment provides
no means of determining through which slit photon passes
 Double slit experiment – QM interpretation
– patterns on screen are result of distribution of photons
– no way of anticipating where particular photon will strike
– impossible to tell which path photon took – cannot assign
specific trajectory to photon
– cannot suppose that half went through one slit and half through
other
– can only predict how photons will be distributed on screen (or
over detector(s))
– interference and diffraction are statistical phenomena associated
with probability that, in a given experimental setup, a photon will
strike a certain point
– high probability  bright fringes
– low probability  dark fringes
 Double slit expt. -- wave vs quantum
wave theory quantum theory

• pattern of fringes: • pattern of fringes:

– Intensity bands due to – Intensity bands due to
variations in square of variations in probability, P, of
amplitude, A2, of resultant a photon striking points on
wave on each point on screen
screen
• role of the slits: • role of the slits:
– to provide two coherent – to present two potential
sources of the secondary routes by which photon can
waves that interfere on the pass from source to screen
screen
 Wave function
The quantity with which Quantum Mechanics is concerned is the
wave function of a body.
Wave function, ψ is a quantity associated with a moving particle. It
is a complex quantity.
|Ψ|2 is proportional to the probability of finding a particle at a
particular point at a particular time. It is the probability density.
|  |2  *
ψ is the probability amplitude.

Thus if   A  iB then  *  A  iB
 |  |  *  A  i B  A  B
2 2 2 2 2 2
 Normalization
|Ψ|2 is the probability density.
The probability of finding the particle within an element of volume d
|  | d
2

Since the particle is definitely be somewhere, so



 d 1
 
2
| | Normalization


A wave function that obeys this equation is said to be normalized.

 Normalization

Lets solve some problems on the concept of Normalization

(actually taken from our Tutorial sheet).

12. Find the value of the normalization constant 𝑁 for the

(a) 𝑌=𝑁 𝑥 exp(−𝑥2⁄2),

wave functions

(b) 𝑌=𝑁 exp(−𝑥2/2𝑎2) exp(−𝑖𝑘𝑥).

 Normalization

(a) 𝑌=𝑁 𝑥 exp(−𝑥2⁄2)

We know the normalization condition says that

 Normalization

OR
 Normalization

(b) 𝑌=𝑁 exp(−𝑥2/2𝑎2) exp(−𝑖𝑘𝑥).

Y* = N exp (-x2/2a2) exp (ikx)

Therefore
Y*Y = N2 exp (-x2/a2)

And Normalization condition becomes

 Normalization
OR
 Properties of wave function
1. It must be finite everywhere.
If ψ is infinite for a particular point, it mean an infinite large
probability of finding the particles at that point.

2. It must be single valued.

If ψ has more than one value at any point, it means more than
one value of probability of finding the particle at that point
which is obviously ridiculous.

3. It must be continuous and have a continuous first derivative

everywhere.
  
, , must be continuous
x y z
4. It must be normalizable.
The Slides are courtesy:

PRASHANT RAWAT
DEPT. OF PHYSICS, UPES