Power Electronics

Lecture-2
Definitions and Terminologies

‫ على رفاعى عبدالاله‬.‫د‬

‫كلية الهندسة بقنا جامعة االزهر‬

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Peak value
• The PEAK value of the wave is the highest value the wave reaches
above a reference value.

• In a voltage waveform the peak value may be labelled VPK or

VMAX (IPK or IMAX in a current waveform).

c c
c c

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Peak to Peak value
• The peak-to-peak value is the vertical distance between the top
and bottom of the wave.

• It is measured in volts on a
voltage waveform, and may
be labelled VPP or VPK−PK.

• In a current waveform it
would be labelled IPP or
IPK−PK as I is used to represent
current.

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Amplitude
• The amplitude of a sine wave is the maximum vertical distance
reached, in either direction from the centre line of the wave.

• As a sine wave is symmetrical about its centre line, the amplitude

of the wave is half the peak-to-peak value.

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Periodic Time & Frequency
• The periodic time is the time, in seconds taken for one complete cycle of
the wave.
• Thus, if the periodic time of a wave is 20ms then there must be 50
complete cycles of the wave in one second (50Hz).

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Average Value
• The average voltage (or current) of a periodic waveform whether it is
a sine wave, square wave or triangular waveform is defined as: “the
quotient of the area under the waveform with respect to time”.
• In other words, the averaging of all the instantaneous values along
time axis with time being one full period, (T).

𝑉 1+𝑉 2 +𝑉 3 + …+𝑉 11 +𝑉 12
𝑉 𝑎𝑣 =
12

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Average Value
• In a pure sine wave if the average value is calculated over the full
cycle, the average value would be equal to zero as the positive and
negative halves will cancel each other out.

• Then the average value is obtained by adding the instantaneous

values of voltage over one half cycle only.
𝜋
1
𝑉 𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑝 sin 𝜃 𝑑 𝜃
𝜋0
𝑉𝑝 𝜋
𝑉 𝑎𝑣 = [ − cos 𝜃 ]0
𝜋
2𝑉𝑝
𝑉 𝑎𝑣 = =0.637 𝑉 𝑝
𝜋
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 Measuring a Sine Wave
RMS Value
Effective DC Value: RMS value gives the same heating effect as an
equivalent DC power.

𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
√
𝑉 21 +𝑉 22 +𝑉 23 +…+𝑉 112 +𝑉 212
12

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 Measuring a Sine Wave

√ √
𝑇
𝑉 2𝑃
[ ]
𝑇
1 2 2 1
𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑃 cos (𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
2𝑇
𝑡 + sin (2 𝜔 𝑡)
2𝜔
𝑇0 0

𝑉𝑝
𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆 = =0 . 707 𝑉 𝑝
√2

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
• The instantaneous value of an alternating voltage or current is the
value of voltage or current at one particular instant.

• The value may be zero if the particular instant is the time in the
cycle at which the polarity of the voltage is changing.

• It may also be the same as the peak value, if the selected instant is
the time in the cycle at which the voltage or current stops
increasing and starts decreasing.

• There are actually an infinite number of instantaneous values

between zero and the peak value.

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Form Factor
• The form factor of an alternating current waveform is the ratio of
the RMS value to the average value .

𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉 𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉 𝑎𝑣
• For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be
equal to 1.11.

0.707 𝑉 𝑝𝑘
𝑉 𝐹𝐹 = =1.11
0.637 𝑉 𝑝𝑘

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Courtesy of Wikipedia 12
 Measuring a Sine Wave
Crest Factor
• Crest Factor is the ratio between the R.M.S. value and the Peak
value of the waveform.
𝑉 𝑝𝑘
𝑉 𝐶𝐹 =
𝑉 𝑅𝑀𝑆

• For a pure sinusoidal waveform, the Crest Factor will always be

equal to 1.414.

• Crest factor indicates how extreme the peaks are in a waveform.

• Both Form Factor and Crest Factor can be used to give information
about the actual shape of the AC waveform.

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 Courtesy of Wikipedia

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Power Factor
• In an AC circuit, power is used most efficiently when the current is
aligned with the voltage.

• However, most equipment tend to draw current with a delay,

misaligning it with the voltage.
• What this means is more current is being drawn to deliver the
necessary amount of power to run the equipment. And the more
an equipment draws current with a delay, the less efficient the
equipment is.

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Power Factor
• The power factor is the ratio of the real power that is used to do
work and the apparent power that is supplied to the circuit.
• The power factor can get values in the range from 0 to 1.
• When all the power is reactive power with no real power (usually
inductive load) - the power factor is 0.
• When all the power is real power with no reactive power (resistive
load) - the power factor is 1.
• The power factor is equal to the real or true power P in watts (W)
divided by the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA):

𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑃𝐹 =
𝑆𝑉𝐴
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 Importance of Power Factor
• A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any
electric utility company since if the power factor is less than one,
they must supply more current to the user for a given amount of
power use.
• Industrial facilities tend to have a "lagging power factor", where
the current lags the voltage (like an inductor).
• This is primarily the result of having a lot of electric induction
motors
• Capacitors have the opposite effect and can compensate for the
inductive motor windings.
• Some industrial sites will have large banks of capacitors strictly for
the purpose of correcting the power factor back toward one to
save on utility company charges.
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A Sinusoidal Waveform

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 Formulae
Peak value of () : As the name suggests over all time.
Average (DC) value of (): Assuming to be periodic over the time period then can be
calculated as

RMS (effective) value of () : For , periodic over the time period ,

Form factor of () : Form factor of ‘ ‘ is defined as

Power Factor (PF): As for any other equipment, the definition of the power factor of
a rectifier is

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 Sinusoidal Waveform Conversion Table

Convert From Multipy By Or By To Get Value

Peak 2 (√2)2 Peak-to-Peak

Peak-to-Peak 0.5 1/2 Peak

Peak 0.7071 1/(√2) RMS

Peak 0.637 2/π Average
Average 1.570 π/2 Peak
Average 1.111 π/(2√2) RMS
RMS 1.414 √2 Peak
RMS 0.901 (2√2)/π Average 20
Amplitude
1.Amplitude of a sine wave is defined as:
1. A) The maximum value of the wave
2. B) The minimum value of the wave
3. C) The average value of the wave
4. D) The peak-to-peak value of the wave
Periodic Time
2.Periodic time of a sine wave is:
2. A) The time taken for one complete cycle
3. B) The reciprocal of frequency
4. C) Both A and B
5. D) Neither A nor B
Frequency
3.Frequency of a sine wave is:
3. A) The number of cycles per second
4. B) The reciprocal of periodic time
5. C) Both A and B
6. D) Neither A nor B

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Average Value
4.Average value of a sine wave over one complete cycle is:
4. A) Zero
5. B) Maximum amplitude
6. C) Minimum amplitude
7. D) RMS value

RMS Value
5.RMS (Root Mean Square) value of a sine wave is:
5. A) The effective value of the wave
6. B) 0.707 times the maximum amplitude
7. C) Both A and B
8. D) Neither A nor B

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1. What is the peak-to-peak amplitude of a sine wave with a maximum value of 5V and a minimum value of -5V?
•A) 5V
•B) 10V
•C) 25V
•D) 0V
•Answer: B) 10V
2. If a sine wave has a frequency of 50 Hz, what is its periodic time?
•A) 0.02 seconds
•B) 20 seconds
•C) 50 seconds
•D) 0.05 seconds
•Answer: A) 0.02 seconds
3. The average value of a full cycle of a sine wave is:
•A) Equal to its peak value
•B) Equal to its RMS value
•C) Zero
•D) Half its peak value
•Answer: C) Zero
4. The RMS value of a sine wave is:
•A) Equal to its peak value
•B) 0.707 times its peak value
•C) 1.414 times its peak value
•D) Twice its peak value
•Answer: B) 0.707 times its peak value
5. A sine wave has a peak value of 10V. What is its RMS value?
•A) 7.07V
•B) 14.14V
•C) 10V
•D) 5V
•Answer: A) 7.07V
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6. A sine wave has a frequency of 100 Hz. What is its angular frequency in radians per second?
•A) 200π
•B) 100π
•C) 50π
•D) 25π
•Answer: B) 100π
7. The phase angle of a sine wave determines:
A) Its amplitude
B) Its frequency
C) Its starting point on the x-axis
D) Its periodic time
Answer: C) Its starting point on the x-axis
8. A sine wave is represented by the equation v(t) = 10sin(2πft), where f is the frequency. What is the amplitude of this wave?
•A) 2π
•B) 10
•C) 20
•D) 5
•Answer: B) 10
9. A sine wave has a peak value of 10V and a frequency of 50 Hz. What is its instantaneous value at t = 0.01 seconds?
•A) 7.07V
•B) 10V
•C) 5V
•D) 0V
•Answer: D) 0V (since sin(0) = 0)
10. The power dissipated in a resistor by a sinusoidal current is:
•A) Proportional to the peak value of the current
•B) Proportional to the average value of the current
•C) Proportional to the RMS value of the current
•D) Independent of the current waveform
•Answer: C) Proportional to the RMS value of the current
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Form Factor is defined as the ratio of RMS value to average value of an alternating quantity.
1.What is the form factor of a sinusoidal wave?
1. a) 1.11
2. b) 1.414
3. c) 0.707
4. d) 0.637
Power Factor is defined as the ratio of active power to apparent power in an AC circuit.
2.In a purely inductive circuit, the power factor is:
2. a) 0
3. b) 1
4. c) 0.5
5. d) 0.707
3.A power factor of 1 indicates:
2. a) Maximum power transfer
3. b) Minimum power transfer
4. c) Zero power transfer
5. d) None of the above
Crest Factor is defined as the ratio of peak value to RMS value of an alternating quantity.
4.What is the crest factor of a sinusoidal wave?
4. a) 1.11
5. b) 1.414
6. c) 0.707
7. d) 0.637 25
Power factor is the ratio of the real power to the apparent power in an AC circuit. It is a measure of how
efficiently the power is being used.
2.Which of the following has a power factor of unity?
2. A) A purely resistive load
3. B) A purely inductive load
4. C) A purely capacitive load
5. D) A load with both inductance and capacitance
Answer: A) A purely resistive load
3.How can the power factor of an inductive load be improved?
3. A) By adding a capacitor in series
4. B) By adding a capacitor in parallel
5. C) By increasing the load resistance
6. D) By decreasing the load resistance
Answer: B) By adding a capacitor in parallel
5.A waveform with a high crest factor indicates:
5. A) A high average value
6. B) A high RMS value
7. C) A high peak value
8. D) A low peak value
Answer: C) A high peak value

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END OF LECTURE-2

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