RADIATION

DETECTORS
• When radiations from a radioactive material pass through matter, they
interact with atoms and molecules and transfer energy to them.
• The transfer of energy has two effects:ionization and excitation. Ionization
occurs when the energy transferred is sufficient to cause an orbital
electron to be stripped away from its parent atom or molecule, thus
creating an ion pair (a negatively charged electron and a positively
charged atom or molecule).
• Excitation occurs when electrons are perturbed from their normal
arrangement in an atom or molecule, thus creating an atom or molecule
in an excited state.
• Both of these processes are involved in the detection of radiation events;
however, ionization is the primary event, and hence the term ionizing
radiation is used frequently when referring to the emissions from
radioactive material.
 GAS-FILLED DETECTORS
Basic Principles
• Most gas-filled detectors belong to a class of detectors called
ionization detectors. These detectors respond to radiation by
means of ionization-induced electrical currents.
• A volume of gas is contained between two electrodes having a
voltage difference (and thus an electric field) between them.
• The negative electrode is called the cathode, the positive
electrode the anode.
• The electrodes are shown as parallel plates, but they maybe a
pair of wires, concentric cylinders, and so forth.
• Under normal circumstances, the gas is an insulator and no
electrical current flows between the electrodes. However,
radiation passing through the gas causes ionization, both direct
ionization from the incident radiation and secondary ionization
from δ rays .
• The electrons produced by ionization are attracted to the
positive electrode and the ionized atoms to the negative
electrode, causing a momentary flow of a small amount of
electrical current.
• At very low voltages, the ion pairs do not
receive enough acceleration to reach the
electrodes and therefore may combine together
to form the original molecule instead of being
collected by the electrodes.
• This region is called the region of
recombination. As the applied voltage is
gradually increased, a region of saturation is
encountered, where the current measured
remains almost the same over the range of
applied voltages. In this region, only the
primary ion pairs formed by the initial
radiations are collected.
• Individual events cannot be detected; only the
total current passing through the chamber is
measured. Because specific ionization differs for
α-, β-, and γ-radiations, the amount of current
produced by these radiations differs in this
region. The voltage in this region is of the order
of 50–300 V. Ionization chambers such as dose
calibrators are operated in this region
• When the applied voltage is further increased, the electrons and positive ions gain such
high velocities and energies during their acceleration toward the electrodes that they
cause secondary ionization. The latter will increase the measured current. This process
is referred to as the gas amplification. This factor can be as high as 106 per individual
primary event depending on the design of the gas detector and the applied voltage.
• In this region, the total current measured is equal to the number of ionizations caused
by the primary radiation multiplied by the gas amplification factor. In this region, the
current increases with the applied voltage in proportion to the initial number of ion
pairs produced by the incident radiation. Therefore, as in the case of the region of
saturation, the current amplification is relatively proportional to the types of radiations,
e.g., α-, β-, and γ-radiations. This region is referred to as the proportional region.
• Proportional counters are usually filled with 90 % argon and 10 % methane (P-10) at
atmospheric pressure. These counters can be used to count individual counts and to
discriminate radiations of different energies, but are not commonly used for γ- and x-
ray counting because of poor counting efficiency (<1 %)
• As the applied voltage is increased further, the current produced by different
types of radiation tends to become identical. The voltage range over which the
current tends to converge is referred to as the region of limited proportionality.
• This region is not practically used for detecting any radiation in nuclear
medicine.
• With additional increase in voltage beyond the region of limited proportionality,
the current becomes identical for all radiations, regardless of how many ion
pairs are produced by the incident radiations. This region is referred to as the
Geiger region
• As the applied voltage is increased beyond the Geiger region, a single ionizing
event produces a series of repetitive discharges leading to what is called
spontaneous discharge. This region is called the region of continuous discharge
because the gas may be ionized in the absence of radiation at this high voltage.
Operation of a detector in this region may cause damage to the detector.
Gas-filled detectors include
• Ionization chambers,
• Proportional counters,
• Geiger Müller (GM) counters.
The use of these detectors in nuclear medicine is somewhat limited
because their stopping power and detection efficiency for x rays and γ
rays are quite low;however, they find some use for applications in
which detection efficiency is not a major factor and for detection and
measurement of nonpenetrating, particle-type radiations.
IONISATION CHAMBERS
• In most ionization chambers, the gas between the electrodes is air.
The chamber may or may not be sealed from the atmosphere.
• Many different designs have been used for the electrodes in an
ionization chamber, but usually they consist of a wire inside of a
cylinder or a pair of concentric cylinders.
• For maximum efficiency of operation, the
voltage between the electrodes must be
sufficient to ensure complete collection
of ions and electrons produced by
radiation within the chamber. If the
voltage is too low, some of the ions and
electrons simply recombine with one
another without contributing to
electrical current flow.
• Recombination occurs at low voltages
(recombination region of the curve). As
the voltage increases there is less
recombination and the response
(electrical current) increases.
• When the voltage becomes sufficient to cause complete collection of
all of the charges produced, the curve enters a plateau called the
saturation region.
• The voltage at which the saturation region begins is called the
saturation voltage (Vs). Typically, Vs ≈50-300 V, depending on the
design of the chamber. Ionization chambers are operated at voltages
in the saturation region. This ensures a maximum response to
radiation and also that the response will be relatively insensitive to
instabilities in the voltage applied to the electrodes.
• Because of the small amount of electrical charge or current involved,
ionization chambers generally are not used to record or count
individual radiation events.
• Instead, the total amount of current passing through the chamber
caused by a beam of radiation is measured. Alternatively, the
electrical charge released in the chamber by the radiation beam may
be collected and measured.
The commonly used ionization chambers in nuclear medicine:

• Ion chamber survey meters

• Dose calibrators
• Pocket dosimeters
Ion Chamber Survey Meter
• An ion chamber survey meter consists of a metallic box fitted with a voltage
circuitry operated by batteries to measure the ionization current or ion-pairs
produced by interaction of radiations with the gas molecules in the chamber. The
readings are displayed in analog or digital mode on scales over four or five decades
(background to 50 R/h). They can be used to measure α, β and γ-ray exposure rates;
however, for measurement of γ-ray exposure alone, a retractable beta shield (1000
mg/cm2) is placed beside a thin window (7 mg/cm2) of the chamber.
• The shield is removed when measuring α and β particle exposures. However, in the
case of α particle exposure, the pulse mode counting is applied due to large voltage
pulses produced, whereas in the case of β and γ rays, the current mode is
employed. Most meters are operated at ambient atmospheric pressure, whereas in
some, high pressure is employed using argon or similar gas. In the latter, the
probability of photon interaction increases and hence the sensitivity.
• However, the operation of the meter at atmospheric pressure is
affected by variations in temperature and atmospheric pressure at
different geographical locations causing a change in gas density, and
so readings will differ from the calibration value. Correction circuits
are installed in current ion chambers to correct for the temperature
and pressure changes.
• According to NRC regulations, the ion chambers must be calibrated annually
with a calibration source. 137Cs (t1/2 = 30 year) with 662 keV photons is
commonly used for calibration of these ion chambers and other survey
meters. The sensitivity of these meters is quite linear over a broad range of
photon energies relative to 137Cs response except at low energies (Fig. 7.4).
These meters can be used for a wide range of exposure readings except at
low energies. The output is integrated and averaged over a period of time by
the use of an RC circuit, and integration can be made slower or faster by the
use of a switch.
• Standard ion chambers are used for measurement of moderate to high
exposure rate readings (e.g., 99Mo–99mTc generator, X-ray beam intensity
etc.), whereas pressurized ion chambers can be used for measuring low
exposure rate readings.
• Sometimes scintillation detectors that are fabricated in the form of a probe
are also used to measure the exposure rates in low to moderate range.
A battery-powered radiation survey meter.

An ionization chamber is contained in the base of the

unit, with the entrance window on the bottom face of
the device . The meter indicates radiation level.The
rotary switch is used to select different scale factors
Dose Calibrator
• The dose calibrator is an ionization
chamber and one of the most essential
instruments in nuclear medicine for
measuring the activity of radionuclides
and radiopharmaceuticals. Since it
measures the current produced by
activity, it does not have deadtime
effects.
• It is a cylindrically shaped, sealed
chamber with a central well and is filled
with argon and traces of halogen at high
pressure (~5–12 atmospheres). Its
operating voltage is about 150 V.
• Isotope selectors provided on the dose calibrator are the feedback
resistors to compensate for the differences in ionization (current)
produced by different radionuclides so that equal activities produce
the same reading. In most dose calibrators, isotope selectors for
common radionuclides are push-button type, whereas those for other
radionuclides are set by a continuous dial.
• An activity range selector is a variable resistor that adjusts the range
of activity (μCi, mCi, Ci, or kBq, MBq, GBq) for display.
• In the past, the NRC required the calibration of dose calibrators for
constancy, accuracy, and linearity of their operation and geometry of
samples and accordingly prescribed specific recommendations for
these tests. However, current NRC regulations (10CFR35) require only
to have these calibrations performed according to nationally
recognized standards or the manufacturers’ instructions.
• In the absence of specific recommendations, the earlier frequency
and other related requirements of these calibration tests have been
given as follows:

1. Constancy (daily)
2. Accuracy (at installation, annually, and after adjustment or repairs)
3. Linearity (at installation, quarterly, and after adjustment or repairs)
4. Geometry (at installation and after adjustment or repairs)
Constancy
• Daily constancy check is performed by measuring a long-lived
radioactivity (e.g., 137Cs) in the dose calibrator and observing the
variation not to exceed ±10 % relative to the previous day reading. If
the variation exceeds ± 10 %, the unit must be repaired or replaced.
Accuracy
• Accuracy of the dose calibrator is determined by measuring the
activity of at least two long-lived radionuclides (e.g., 137Cs and 57Co)
certified by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
in the dose calibrator and comparing the measured activity with the
activity reported by the NIST.
• The measured value should not differ from the standard value by
more than ±10 %. If it exceeds ±10 %, the unit must be repaired or
replaced.
Linearity

1.Decay Method
• The linearity test indicates the dose calibrator’s
ability to measure the activity accurately over a
range of values. It is performed by measuring a
radioactive source (e.g., 99mTc), containing the
highest activity normally used in the clinical
setting, in the dose calibrator at different time
intervals until the source decays down to less than
30 μCi (1.1 MBq).
• The measured activities are plotted against time
on a semilog paper and the “best fit” line is
drawn. If the deviation of any point from the line
exceeds ±10 %, the dose calibrator needs to be
replaced, or a correction factor must be applied to
the data in the nonlinear region.
Shielding Method

• The advantage of this method is that it is less time-consuming and is easy to perform. The method
utilizes a commercial kit, called Calicheck, that contains seven concentric tubes or “sleeves.”
• All sleeves except the innermost one are lead-lined with increasing thickness simulating the
various times of decay. When an activity source is measured by using first the inner sleeve,
followed sequentially by increasingly thick sleeves, the data represent the activities at different
decay times.
• Calibration factors are calculated by dividing the innermost tube reading by each outer tube
reading.
• For subsequent linearity tests, identical measurements are made using the sleeves, and each
measurement is multiplied by the corresponding calibration factors. Each corrected sleeve reading
should give an identical value, and the average of all values is calculated.
• If an individual reading exceeds the average value by ±10 %, then the calibrator needs
replacement, or a correction factor needs to be applied.
Geometry

• Variations in sample volumes or in geometric configurations of the

container can affect the accuracy of measurements in a dose
calibrator, particularly for low energy radiations.
• Thus, 1 mCi (37 MBq) in 1-ml or 30-ml volume, or 1 mCi (37 MBq) in
1-cc syringe, 10-cc syringe, or 10-cc vial, or in containers of different
materials (plastic or glass) may give different readings in the dose
calibrator.
• Correction factors must be determined for these geometric variations
and applied to the measured activities, if the error exceeds ±10 %
 Pocket Dosimeter
• A device that records total charge collected over time
is the pocket dosimeter.
• The ionization chamber electrodes are a central
charging electrode and the outside case of the
dosimeter. They are insulated electrically from one
another and form an electrical capacitor. The
capacitor is first charged to a reference voltage V by
connecting the charging rod to a separate charging
unit.
• If the capacitance between the charging electrode
and the case is C, the charge stored on the capacitor
is Q =V × C. When the chamber is exposed to
radiation, electrical charge ΔQ is collected by the
electrodes, discharging the capacitor. The voltage
change across the capacitor is measured and is
related to the amount of electrical charge collected
by the ionization chamber electrodes (ΔQ = ΔV × C).
• Pocket dosimeters are used in nuclear medicine to
monitor radiation levels for radiation protection purposes.
The ionization chamber is contained in a small metal or
plastic cylinder (~1.5 cm diameter × 10 cm long) that can
be clipped to a shirt pocket or collar.Electrodes recessed
into one end of the chamber are used to connect the
dosimeter to a separate charger unit to charge up the
capacitor to the reference voltage. Voltage on the
capacitor causes a fine wire within the chamber to be
deflected. The position of the wire changes as the voltage
on the capacitor changes. The wire is observed through a
viewing window at one end of the chamber.
• Its position is read against a scale that has been calibrated
in terms of the total radiation recorded by the chamber,
usually in units of air kerma (gray) or exposure
(roentgens). Pocket dosimeters are suitable for measuring
radiation exposures down to approximately 10 mR(air
kerma of 0.1 mGy) to an accuracy of approximately 20%
• A basic problem with ionization chambers is that they are quite inefficient
as detectors for x rays and γ rays. Only a very small percentage (<1%) of x
rays or γ rays passing through the chamber actually interact with and
cause ionization of air molecules. Indeed, most of the electrical charge
released in anionization chamber by photon radiations comes from
secondary electrons knocked loose from the walls of the chamber by the
incident radiations rather than by direct ionization of air molecules.
• The relatively low detection efficiency of ionization chambers is not a
serious limitation in the applications described earlier; however, it
precludes their use for most other applications in nuclear medicine,such
as imaging.
• Two additional problems with ionization chambers should be noted. The first is that for x
rays and γ rays, their response changes with photon energy because photon absorption in
the gas volume and in the chamber walls (i.e.,detection efficiency) and relative
penetration of photons through the chamber walls are both energy-dependent processes.
A second problem is that in unsealed chambers the density of the air in the chamber, and
hence its absorption efficiency, changes with atmospheric pressure (ρ ∝ P) and
temperature (ρ ∝ 1/T ).
• Most chambers are calibrated to read accurately at sea level pressure (Pref = 1.013 N/m2
= 760 mm Hg) and average room temperature (Tref = 22°C =295K). For other
temperatures T and pressures P the chamber reading must be corrected (multiplied) by a
temperature-pressure correction factor
• C P T PT TP ref = × × ref ( ) /( ) (7-1)
• Temperature must be expressed on the Kelvin scale in this equation (K = °C + 273). The
correction is significant in some cases, for example, at higher elevations (P ≈ 0.85 N/m2≈
640 mm Hg at 1600-meter elevation). Notethat temperature-pressure corrections are not
required with sealed chambers, such as inmost dose calibrators. A defective seal on such
an instrument obviously could lead to erroneous readings.
Proportional Counter
• In an ionization chamber, the voltage between the electrodes is sufficient only to collect those charges
liberated by direct action of the ionizing radiations.
• However, if the voltage is increased to a sufficiently high value, the electrons liberated by radiation gain such
high velocities and energies when accelerated toward the positive electrode that they cause additional
ionization in collisions with other atoms in the gas. These electrons in turn can cause further ionization and
so on.
• This cascade process is called the Townsend avalanche or the gas amplification of charge. The factor by
which ionization is increased is called the gas amplification factor. This factor increases rapidly with applied
voltage.
• The gas amplification factor may be as high as 106 , depending on the chamber design and the applied
voltage.
• Detectors that operate in the ascending
portion of the curve shown in figure are
called proportional counters.
• In this region, the ionization caused by
an incident radiation event is multiplied
(amplified) by the gas amplification
factor.
• The total amount of charge produced is
equal to the number of ionizations
caused by the primary radiation event
(at 34 eV/ionization in air) multiplied by
the amplification factor. Thus the total
charge produced is proportional to the
total amount of energy deposited in the
detector by the detected radiation
event.
• Actually, proportional counters are not simply ionization chambers
operated at high voltages but are specially constructed chambers
designed to optimize the gas amplification effect, both in terms of the
amount of amplification and the uniformity of this amplification
within the chamber. In particular, proportional counters are filled with
gases that allow easy migration of free electrons, because this is
critical for the amplification effect. Common fill gases are the noble
gases,with argon and xenon being the most popular.
• The major advantage of proportional counters versus ionization chambers is that
the size of the electrical signal produced by an individual ionizing radiation event
is much larger. They are, in fact, useful for detecting and counting individual
radiation events.
• Furthermore, because the size of an individual current pulse is proportional to the
amount of energy deposited by the radiation event in the detector, proportional
counters can be used for energy-sensitive counting, such as to discriminate
between radiation events of different energies on the basis of electrical pulse size.
• They are still inefficient detectors for higher energy x rays and γ rays.
Consequently, they find very limited use in nuclear medicine. Proportional
counters are used mostly in research applications for measuring nonpenetrating
radiations such as α particles and β particles.
Geiger–Müller Counters
• A Geiger-Müller (GM) counter is a gas-filled detector designed for
maximum gas amplification effect.
• The center wire (anode) is maintained at a high positive voltage
relative to the outer cylindrical electrode (cathode). The outer
electrode may be a metal cylinder or a metallic film sprayed on the
inside of a glass or plastic tube. Some GM counters have a thin
radiation entrance window at one end of the tube. The cylinder of
the tube is sealed and filled with a special gas mixture, typically
argon plus a quenching gas.
Operating principles of a Geiger-Müller
counter.
The incoming radiation produces ion pairs
by direct
ionization and through secondary fast
electrons (δ rays) created in the ionization
process. These ion pairs are then
multiplied by an avalanche process that in
turn triggers further avalanches through
the emission of ultraviolet radiation. This
process is terminated when a sufficient
number of positive ions collect around
the anode, effectively reducing
the electric field experienced by the
electrons owing to charge buildup at the
anode.
• When ionization occurs in a GM counter, electrons are accelerated
toward the center wire. Gas amplification occurs in the GM counter as
in a proportional counter. In addition to ionizing gas molecules, the
accelerating electrons also can cause excitation of gas molecules
through collisions. These excited gas molecules quickly (~10−9 sec)
return to the ground state through the emission of photons at visible
or ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths. If a UV photon interacts in the gas, or
at the cathode surface by photoelectric absorption, this releases
another electron, which can trigger a further electron avalanche as it
moves toward the anode.
• In this way, an avalanche ionization is propagated throughout the gas
volume and along the entire length of the center wire.
• As the avalanche progresses, the electrons, being
relatively light, are quickly collected, but the heavy, slow-
moving positive ions are not. Eventually, a “hose” of slow-
moving positive charges is formed around the center
wire. The avalanche then terminates because the positive
ions reduce the effective electric field around the anode
wire, eventually dropping it below the level required for
gas multiplication.
• The avalanche ionization in a GM tube releases a large
and essentially constant quantity of electrical charge,
regardless of voltage applied to the tube or the energy of
the ionizing radiation event. The gas amplification factor
may be as high as 1010. The large electrical signal is easily
detected with electronic circuits. Thus a GM counter, like
a proportional counter, can be used to detect and count
individual ionizing radiation events. However, because the
size of the electrical signal output is constant, regardless
of the energy of the radiation detected, a GM counter
cannot be used to distinguish between radiation events of
different energies.
• Once the avalanche has terminated in a GM counter, an
additional problem arises. The positive ion cloud moves toward
the outer electrode. When the ion cloud is very close to the outer
electrode, electrons are pulled out from it to neutralize the
positive ions. Some of these electrons enter higher-energy orbits
of the positive ions; when they eventually drop into the lower-
energy orbits, UV radiation is emitted.
• This can cause the release of more electrons from the outer wall
and set off another avalanche. Thus if no precautions are taken, a
single ionizing radiation event can cause the GM counter to go
into a pulsating series of discharges.
• This problem is prevented by the introduction of a quenching gas
into the GM counter gas mixture. Such GM counters are called
self-quenched.
Effective quenching gases have
three properties:
• First, they tend to give up electrons easily. When the positive ion cloud is formed,
molecules of the quenching gas neutralize other ions by donating electrons to
them. The ion cloud is thus converted into ionized molecules of quenching gas.
• Second, when the quenching gas molecules are neutralized by electrons entering
higher energy orbits, they deenergize themselves by dissociating into molecular
fragments rather than by emitting UV photons.
• Third, the quenching gas molecules are strong absorbers of UV radiation. Thus
the few UV photons that are released during neutralization of the positive ion
cloud are quickly absorbed before they can set off another avalanche.
• Commonly used quenching gases include heavy organic vapors (e.g.,
alcohol) and halogen gases (e.g., Cl2). The organic vapors are more
effective quenching agents but have the disadvantage that their
molecular fragments do not recombine after dissociation.
• Thus an organic quenching gas eventually is used up, typically after
approximately 1010 radiations have been detected. Halogen gas
molecules recombine after dissociation and thus have an essentially
unlimited lifetime in a GM counter.
• As the high voltage is increased, the counting rate increases rapidly
as more and more of the output pulses exceed the counter
threshold. When the voltage is sufficient that essentially all pulses
are above the threshold and are counted, a plateau region is
reached. The point at which the plateau begins is called the knee of
the curve. Further increases in voltage may still increase the
amplitude of the output pulses; however, the counting rate remains
constant as the radiation source is constant.
• When the voltage is increased to a very high value, the counting rate
again begins to increase. This happens when the voltage is so high
that spontaneous ionization begins to occur in the chamber. The
curve then enters the spontaneous discharge region.
• GM counters should not be operated in the spontaneous discharge
region because no useful information can be obtained there.
Furthermore, if the counter contains an organic quenching gas, it is
rapidly used up by the spontaneous discharges, thus shortening the
life of the counter. The proper operating voltage is the plateau
region, about one third the distance from the knee to the
spontaneous discharge region.
• GM counters are simple, rugged, and relatively inexpensive radiation
detectors. Much of the early (pre-1950s) work in nuclear medicine
was done with GM counters; however, they have since been replaced
for most applications by other types of detectors.
• The major disadvantages of GM counters are low detection efficiency
(<1%) for γ rays and x rays and an inability to distinguish between
radiation events of different energies on the basis of pulse size for
energy-selective counting(because all pulses from a GM counter are
the same size).
• GM counters are used mostly in survey meters for radiation protection purposes. An
example is shown in Figure 7-11. The detector in this survey meter is of the pancake
type.
• The entrance window at the end of the counter tube is a thin layer of mica (0.01-mm
thick) that is sufficiently thin to permit passage of particles and low-energy photons
into the counter. The rather fragile window is protected by a wire screen. GM counters
designed for counting only relatively penetrating radiations, such as γ rays and high-
energy β particles, have thicker, sturdier windows,for example, 0.1-mm-thick
aluminum or stainless steel. Many GM counters are provided with removable covers
on the entrance window that can be used to distinguish between penetrating and
nonpenetrating radiations by observing the difference between counting rates with
and without the cover in place. GM survey meters are more sensitive than ionization
chamber survey meters, typically by a factor of approximately 10