Primary & Secondary

Method of Data Collection

Memcha Loitongbam
MIMS
Manipur University
Data collection
 The process of gathering and measuring information:
On what? Variables of interest
How? In an established systematic way
Why? To enable one
 to answer stated research questions
 test hypotheses

 evaluate outcomes.
Primary & Secondary Data
Primary data: Original data collected for a specific
research goal
Secondary data: Originally collected for a different
purpose and reused for another research purpose
In simple words: primary data are one which are
collected for the first time by the researcher while
secondary data are the data already collected or
produced by others
Primary vs. Secondary Data
Criteria Primary data Secondary data

1 Meaning Primary data refers to the first Secondary data means data
hand data gathered by the collected by someone else earlier.
researcher himself
2 Time Real time data Past data
3 Process Very involved Quick and easy
4 Source Surveys, observations, Government publications,
experiments, questionnaire, websites, books, journal articles,
personal interview etc. internal records etc.
5 Cost Expensive Economical
effectiveness
6 Collection time Long Short

7 Specificity Always specific to the May or may not be specific to the

researcher’s needs researcher’s need.
8 Availability Crude form Refined form
9 Accuracy and More Relatively less
Reliability
Methods of data collection
 Primary data
 Experiment
 Survey:
 questionnaire
 interview
 observation
 Secondary data
 Books
 Records
 Biographies
 Newspapers
 Published censuses or other statistical data
 Data archives
 Internet articles
 Research articles by other researchers (journals)
 Databases, etc
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

When the researcher utilizes secondary data, then

she/he has to look into various sources from where
she/he can obtain them
Secondary data may either be published data or
unpublished data
Published data Unpublished data
1. various publications of the central, 1. diaries
state are local governments
2. various publications of foreign 2. letters
governments or of international 3. unpublished biographies
bodies and their subsidiary and autobiographies
organisations
3. technical and trade journals; 4. and also may be available
4. books, magazines and newspapers with scholars and research
5. reports and publications of workers,
various associations connected
with business and industry, banks,
5. trade associations,
stock exchanges, etc. 6. labour bureaus
6. reports prepared by research 7. other public/ private
scholars, universities, economists,
etc. in different fields individuals and
7. public records and statistics, organisations
historical documents, and other
sources of published information.
Precaution in using secondary data
Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data.
Minute scrutiny must be made because it is just possible
that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be
inadequate in the context of the problem which the
researcher wants to study.
Dr. A.L. Bowley very aptly observes that it is never safe to
take published statistics at their face value without
knowing their meaning and limitations and it is always
necessary to criticise arguments that can be based on
them
Criteria for evaluation
1. Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by
finding :
 Who collected the data?
 What were the sources of data?
 Were they collected by using proper methods
 At what time were they collected?
 Was there any bias of the compiler?
 What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?
Criteria for evaluation
2. Suitability of data: The researcher must very carefully
scrutinise
 the definition of various terms and units of collection used at the
time of collecting the data from the primary source originally.
 the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be
studied

3. Adequacy of data: Data will be considered as inadequate :

 If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry
 if they are related to an area which may be either narrower or wider
than the area of the present enquiry.
INTERVIEWS METHOD
Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers
from participants in a study.
 Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual,
face-to-face interviews and face-to-face group interviewing.
The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by
the telephone or other electronic devices (e.g. computers).
Interviews can be –
A. Structured,
B. Semi-structure or
C. Unstructured
Structured Interviews
Characteristics of the Structured Interview
Each respondent - the same series of questions.
Questions are created prior to the interview
Limited set of response categories
Little room for variation in responses
Few open-ended questions
Questioning is standardized
Ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept consistent
from interview to interview.
Semi-structured Interviews
 Characteristics of Semi-structured Interviews:
The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal
interview.
The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide
The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow
topical trajectories in the conversation that may stray
from the guide when s/he feels this is appropriate.
Unstructured Interviews
Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews
 The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview
in that they have a scheduled time to sit and speak with each
other and both parties recognize this to be an interview.
 The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus
and goal of the interview. This guides the discussion.
 The interviewer builds rapport with respondents, getting
respondents to open-up and express themselves in their own
way.
 Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control
over informants’ responses.
Interview
Requires a clear topical focus and well-developed
understanding of the topic at hand
Best used when the literature in a topical area is highly
developed
Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by
following the instructions on the interview guide or
questionnaire.
Interview Type
Personal – Interviewer and Interviewee are going
through interview face-to-face
Telephone – Conducting an interview via telephone
Web Interview – Interviewing with e-mail, chat room
or other form of communication over the web
Focus Group- involves a moderator leading a
discussion between a small group of respondents on a
specific topic.
Interview Tips
Clarity – Speak clearly and properly so that the
participant can understand you.
Have a set list of questions that you would like to ask
the participant and interact with them if necessary.
Try to clock how long the interview will take so you
don’t go overboard and run out of time.
Try not to offend or throw off the participant with
your questions and body motions.
Interview Positives
Responses are typically more detailed
Interviewer can explain questions that are unclear
Interviewer can observe the participants body
language
The Interviewer can add additional questions if they
feel that the information will help their research.
Interview Negatives
It can be difficult to get all the samples that you
would like to because of high cost and amount of time
needed.
Courtesy Bias – the tendency for respondents to give
answer that they think the interview wants to hear,
rather than what they really feel
Faulty memory – some respondents may answer a
question incorrectly simply because of a poor memory
Analyze data
When analyzing data it is important to note that your
data will typically never be precise especially in large
populations.
There are statistical methods that can be use to get a
more accurate measure of the data.
Analyzing based on percentages of answers is often a
common choice.
Use the data to improve what is feasible in your
project.
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

Observation is a fundamental way of finding out

about the world around us.
As a method of data collection for research purposes,
observation is more than just looking or listening.
Observational method involves :
prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation
 clearly expressed, self-conscious notations of how
observing is done
methodical and tactical improvisation in order to
develop a full understanding of the setting of
interest
 imparting attention in ways that is in some sense
standardized
 recording one’s observations
Use of Observational Method
 When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused
on answering a how- or what-type question
 When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to
explain the behavior of people in a particular setting
 When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is
valuable
 When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting
 When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be
different from actual behavior (what people actually do).
 When implementing an intervention in a natural setting,
observation may be used in conjunction with other quantitative data
collection techniques.
Classification of Observational Method

1. Casual and Scientific Observation:

 casual approach involves observing the right thing at the right
place and also at the right time by a matter of chance or by luck
 scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the
measurement
2. Natural Observation:
 Natural observation involves observing the behaviour in a
normal setting and in this type of observation, no efforts are
made to bring any type of change in the behavior of the
observed.
3. Subjective and Objective Observation:
 Subjective observation involves the observation of the one’s own
immediate experience
 Objective observation involves observer as an entity apart from
the thing being observed,
Objective observation is also called as the retrospection.
4. Direct and Indirect Observation:
 Direct method of observation involves physical presence in the
situation and may also monitors what takes place.
 Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical
recording or the recording by some other means like
photographic or electronic.
5. Participant and Non Participant Observation:
 Participation by the observers with the various types of
operations of the group, the degree of the participation is
largely affected by the nature of the study
 Non participant type of observation, no participation of the
observer in the activities of the and no relationship between the
researcher and the group.
6. Undisguised participant observation is often used to
understand the culture and behavior of groups of individuals.
 Disguised participant observation is often used when
researchers believe individuals would change their behavior if
they knew it was being recorded.
7. Structured and Unstructured
Observation:
Structured observation:
 works according to a plan and involves specific information of the
units that are to be observed
 the information is to be recorded and decided well in advance
 Involves the use of especial instruments
Structured observation is more likely to be carried out by those
operating from a ‘positivist’perspective, or who at least believe it is
possible to clearly define and quantify behaviors.
Unstructured observation :
 is more likely to be carried out by those operating from an
‘interpretive’ or ‘critical’ perspective
 the focus is on understanding the meanings participants, in the
contexts observed, attribute to events and actions.
8. Controlled and Un-controlled
Observation:
Controlled observations:
 made under the influence of some of the external forces
 rarely lead to improvement in the precision of the research
results
 However, can be very effective if made to work in the
coordination with mechanical synchronizing devices, film
recording etc.
Un-controlled observations:
 made in the natural environment and reverse to the controlled
observation
 involve no influence or guidance of any type of external force
9. Covert and Overt Observation
 Covert observations :
when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member
of the group and observes in secret
There could be ethical problems or deception and
consent
 Overt observations:
when the researcher tells the group s/he is conducting
research (i.e. they know they are being observed).
 Type of
Observational Advantages Disadvantages
Method
 Particularly good for observing specific
 Ethics: Where research is
subjects.
undisclosed consent will not be
Naturalistic  Provides ecologically valid recordings of
obtained, where consent is not
Observation natural behavior.
obtained - details may be used
 Spontaneous behaviors are more likely to
which infringe confidentiality.
happen.
 Allows control of extraneous variables.  The implementation of controls
 Reliability of results can be tested by may
Structured repeating the study. have an effect on behavior.
Observation  Provides a safe environment to study  Lack of ecological validity.
contentious concepts such as infant  Observer effect.
attachment.  Observer bias.
 Only really appropriate as a ‘first
 Gives a broad overview of a situation.
Unstructured step’
 Useful where situation/subject matter to
Observation to give an overview of a situation /
be studied is unclear.
concept / idea.
 Gives an ‘insiders’ view.
 Behaviors are less prone to
 Observer effect.
Participant misinterpretation because researcher was a
 Possible lack of objectivity on the
Observation participant.
part of the observer
 Opportunity for researcher to become an
‘accepted’ part of the environment.
Records of behaviour
 Qualitative Records of Behavior: Observation can provide rich
qualitative data, sometimes described as ‘thick description’ (Geertz, 1973)
 Typically, the researcher would not approach the observation with pre-
determined categories or questions in mind
 Because of this openness, observation in qualitative research is often referred
to as unstructured.
 Quantitative Measures of Behavior:
 Researchers often obtain quantitative measures such as frequency or duration
of occurrence when they seek to describe specific behaviors or events.
 Involves the use of some kind of formal, structured observation instrument or
schedule
 clearly identifies - the variables to be observed, who or what will be observed;
how the observation is to be conducted; and when and where the
observations will take place.
Analysis of Observational Data
 Data Reduction:
 Observational data are summarized through the process of data reduction.
 Researchers may quantify the data in narrative records by coding behaviors
according to specified criteria, for example, by categorizing behaviors.
 Data are summarized using descriptive measures such as frequency counts,
means, and standard deviations.
 Observer Reliability:
 Inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which independent observers
agree in their observations.
 Inter-observer reliability is increased by providing clear definitions about
behaviors and events to be recorded, by training observers, and by providing
feedback about discrepancies.
 Inter-observer reliability is assessed by calculating percentage of agreement or
correlations, depending on how the behaviors were measured and recorded.
Influence of the Observer
If individuals change their behavior when they know
they are being observed (reactivity), their behavior may
no longer be representative of their normal behavior
Methods to control reactivity include
 unobtrusive (non-reactive) measurement
adaptation (habituation, desensitization)
indirect observations of behavior
Researchers must consider ethical issues when
attempting to control reactivity.
Observer Bias
 Observer bias occurs
 when observers’ biases determine which behaviors they choose to observe
 and when observers’ expectations about behavior lead to systematic errors
in identifying and recording behavior
 Expectancy effects can occur
 when observers are aware of hypotheses for the outcome of the study or
the outcome of previous studies
 The first step in controlling observer bias is
 to recognize that it may be present
 Observer bias may be reduced
 by keeping observers unaware (blind) of the goals and hypotheses of the
study
The goal for all data collection is to capture quality
evidence that then translates to rich data analysis
Data collection is one of the most important stages in
conducting a research.
You can have the best research design in the
world but if you cannot collect the required data
you will be not be able to complete your project.
 Bibliography and
referencing
Bibliographic sources in the web
Online database
Importance of referencing & bibliography
different citation styles
Bibliography and Referencing
A reference list is
the detailed list of references that are cited in your work
 A bibliography is
a detailed list of references cited in your work,
 plus the background readings or other material that you
may have read, but not actually cited

Both reference lists and bibliographies appear at the end of

a written work and are usually organized alphabetically
A paper can have both a reference list and a bibliography
Bibliographic Source
Types of Sources
Scholarly publications (Journals)
Popular sources (News and Magazines)
Professional/Trade sources.
Books / Book Chapters.
Conference proceedings.
Government Documents.
Theses & Dissertations.
Bibliographic database
A bibliographic database contains bibliographic
records
 It is an organized collection of references of published
digital literature
Academic research databases
Name Discipline Access Provider
option
Scopus Multidisciplinary Subscription Elsevier
Web of Science Multidisciplinary Subscription Clarivate (formerly
Thomson Reuters)

PubMed Medicine, Free NIH

Biological Sciences

ERIC Education Science Free U.S. Department of

Education

IEEE Xplore Engineering Free IEEE (Institute of

Electrical and
Electronics Engineers)

ScienceDirect Multidisciplinary Free Elsevier

Directory of Multidisciplinary Free DOAJ
Open Access
Journals (DOAJ)
Academic research databases
Name Discipline Access option Provider
JSTOR Multidisciplinary Free ITHAKA

EconBiz Economics Free Leibniz Information

Centre for Economics
(ZBW)

EconLit Economics Subscription EBSCOhost, ProQuest

OVID, and AEA
ORCID Multidisciplinary Free ORCID(Open
Researcher and
Contributor ID)

Index Multidisciplinary Free Index Copernicus Ltd.

Copernicus
JSTOR: Journal Multidisciplinary Free & JSTOR
Storage Subscription
Mendeley Multidisciplinary Free & Elsevier
Subscription
Referencing/Citation
The terms reference and citation are often used to
refer to the same thing
Nevertheless,
 citation tends to mean the part of the text within your
work where you acknowledge the source
whilst a reference usually refers to the full bibliographic
information at the end.
What is Referencing?
Referencing also called as citation:
 a method of acknowledging and recognizing someone for his or her
innovative work that we used in our research to back and support our idea
 usually includes
 the name of author,
 date of publication
 name and location of the publishing company
 title of the journal or name of the book
 title of the research or chapter’s name
 DOI (Digital Object Identifier)

Referencing is done at two levels:

 first we need to give a brief reference in the body of text called as “in-text
citation”
 and secondly a detailed reference is provided at the end of the document in
the form of a list
What are the Purposes of Referencing?

Referencing - a necessary element of academic writing

Used to locate the original source of work so that
everyone may access the material and understand it in
his/her own way
Another purpose is to check/discourage plagiarism.
Referencing/Citing
(1) give credit
(2) add strength and authority to our work
(3) place our work in a specific context
(4) leave a trail for other scholars

"Good citations should reveal your sources, not conceal

them. They should honestly reflect the research you
conducted." (Lipson 4)

Lipson, Charles. "Why Cite?" Cite Right: A Quick Guide to

Citation Styles--MLA, APA, Chicago, the Sciences,
Professions, and More. Chicago: U of Chicago, 2006. Print.
Importance of reference & bibliography
Expansion of help readers expand their knowledge on a topic
Knowledge-
Informed to indicate that a thorough review of the literature
perspective have been conducted

Reinforce Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce

arguments- and support your arguments, thus adding
credibility
Cite different if you disagree with others’ view, can act as
points of view- positions from which to argue an alternative
viewpoint

Distinguish - our own ideas from those of someone else

Validate our by referring to documented evidence
writing-
Inform readers the scope and depth of our reading
Importance of reference & bibliography
Integrate -by assessing, comparing, contrasting or evaluating
information
Emphasize position that we agree or disagree with
Lead for the reference to other research may lead up to our study
study
Highlight pertinent point by quoting the original source
Enable readers to consult the original source independently
Plagiarism - It is extremely important to acknowledge the source
of any information to avoid plagiarism

•Outside academe, ideas are considered intellectual property -

there can serious repercussions if you fail to cite where you got an
idea from
•Failure to cite other people's intellectual property ruins careers
and reputations and can result in legal action
Referencing/ Citation Styles
Various referencing styles differ in terms of
 formatting
 use of punctuation
the order of information
differences occur at both the levels of referencing i.e.
 in-text citation, and reference list.

 Which citation style is to use often depends on the

discipline you are writing for
 Moreover, the publishers or the academic institutions
decide their citing styles
System of referencing styles
Documentary-note system Parenthetical system
 refers to the use of chronological  refers to the use of brief author
numbers as in-text markers to either and date (or page number as in
footnotes or endnotes or both
MLA format)
 footnotes are included at the end of
 description as in-text citation
each page,
 and endnotes are listed on a separate surrounded by parenthesis
page at the end of the document (round brackets)
 in text citation is done with a  and then the detailed reference
numeric digit usually placed after the is provided as a separate list at
full stop the end of the document
 detailed references in endnotes or
reference list may or may not be
indicated by numeric digit depending
on the particular referencing style
In-text citations have two formats: parenthetical and
narrative.
In parenthetical citations, the author name and
publication date appear in parentheses.
 E.g.: Falsely balanced news coverage can distort the public’s
perception of expert consensus on an issue (Koehler, 2016).
In narrative citations, the author name is incorporated
into the text as part of the sentence and the year follows
in parentheses
 E.g.: Koehler (2016) noted the dangers of falsely balanced
news coverage.
Referencing/ Citation Styles
 Some common and widely used citation styles are:
 APA (American Psychological Association) Referencing Style
 MLA ((Modern Language Association) Referencing Style
 Chicago/ Turabian Referencing Style
 Harvard
 Vancouver

There are other styles that are not that common but are still
required at some places:
 ACS (American Chemical Society)
 AGLC (Australian Guide to Legal Citation)
 AMA (American Medical Association)
 CSE/ CBE (Council of Science Editors/ Council of Biology Editors)
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
Different referencing styles
American Psychological Modern Language Association
Association (APA) of America (MLA)
 came forth in 1929  founded in 1883.
 uses the parenthetical system  uses the parenthetical system
of referencing of referencing.
 the name of author and year  the name of author and the
of publication is given in page number of the source
round brackets is given in round brackets
 used in the various fields of  used by various subjects of
social sciences linguistics and literature
Focus of MLA & APA Styles
Modern Language Association American Psychological
(MLA) Association (APA)
 Humanities and related areas  Social sciences (i.e.
(i.e. literature) psychology, sociology, and
 Focuses on authorship: “… linguistics)
(Smith and Johnson)”  Focuses on date of publication:
 Format is designed for ease of “…(Smith & Johnson, 2009)”
presentation  Format is designed for
 Often viewed as “easier” to comparison of research and
follow determining relevance
 Often thought of as more
difficult

53
Basics of MLA & APA Citations (Book Example)
MLA APA
 Name(s) of author(s)  Name(s) of author(s)
 Work title  Publication year
 Publication city and year  Work title
 Publisher
 Publication city
 Publication medium (i.e. print,
 Publisher
web)
In-text citations:
MLA: “…no significant results” (Johnson 34).
APA: “…no significant results” (Johnson, 2003, p. 34).

Reference citations:
MLA: Johnson, Thomas. Studies in College. New York: McGraw-Hill,
2003. Print.
APA: Johnson, T. (2003). Studies in college. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill.
54
Comparing In-Text Citations
In-text citations are used when you need to give credit
to an author for using
 a quote (exact wording),
 paraphrasing (rewording),
 or discussing his/her ideas
Example: (Mathis and Jones, 2009, pg. 74)

• All in-text citations for MLA and APA must reference the
author’s name.

55
Page number or publication year
Reference to the page number or publication year
depends on the situation and citation style.
• When using APA, always give the year of publication.
• When quoting, always give the page number in MLA &
APA.
• When paraphrasing or simply referencing, no page
number is needed for either style.
Comparing In-Text Citations (Cont.)
Example: “The study provided no significant findings regarding the
relationship of gender and success in language classes.” -- Johnson,
Thomas and Arlene Maiden. Studies in College. New York: 2003.
McGraw-Hill. Print.
Paraphrase
MLA: As stated by Johnson and Maiden, the research showed
that there was…
APA: As stated in Johnson & Maiden (2003), the research showed
that…

Quote (incorporation in text)

MLA: As Johnson and Maiden explained, their “study…classes”
(34).
APA: As Johnson & Maiden (2003) explained, their “study…
classes”
Quote (no(p.incorporation
34). in text)
MLA: “…in language classes” (Johnson and Maiden 34)
APA: “…in language classes” (Johnson & Maiden, 2003, p. 34)

57
Comparing References
At the end of each research paper,
 a section must be devoted to listing the information for each
resource that you used in the paper.
This includes all resources that you quoted, paraphrased, or
mentioned.

• Different citation styles use difference terms for this section:

• MLA: Bibliography (Works Cited title)
• APA: Reference Page (Reference title)

• Both MLA and APA require that you organize your citations
alphabetically by the first letter of an author’s last name.

58
Books
Template
MLA: Lastname, Firstname. Title of Work. City of Pub: Publisher,
Year. Medium.
APA: Lastname, First Initial. (Year). Title of work. City of Pub,
State: Publisher.
Examples
MLA: Johnson, Thomas. Studies in College. New York: 2003.
McGraw-Hill. Print.
APA: Johnson, T. (2003). Studies in college. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Notice these primary differences…
• MLA uses the full first name; APA uses only the first initial.
• MLA capitalizes all major words (excluding articles (a/an/the) and
prepositions (of, out, in)); APA only capitalizes first words in the titles
and proper nouns (names).

• MLA states the medium of publication (print, web); APA does

not. 59
Article or Chapter in an Edited Book

APA MLA
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): In-Text Citation:
(Author Surname [of Chapter or Article],
(Author Surname [of Chapter or Article]
Year)
page number)
In-Text Citation (Quotation):
(Author Surname [of Chapter or Article], Year, Works Cited List:
page number) Last name, First name. "Title of Essay." Title
References : of Collection, edited by Editor Name(s).
Author Surname [of Chapter or Article], First Publisher, Year, pp Page range of entry.
Initial. Second Initial. (Year). Article or Example:
chapter title. In Editor First Initial. Second
Initial. Surname (Ed.), Book title: Subtitle (pp. In-Text Citation
page range of article or chapter). Publisher. (Lawrence and Dodds 526)
Example Works Cited:
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): Lawrence, James. A., and Alfred Dodds.
(Lawrence & Dodds, 2003) "Goal-Directed Activities and Life-Span
In-Text Citation (Quotation): Development.” Handbook of
(Lawrence & Dodds, 2003, p. 526) Developmental Psychology, edited by
References: John Valsiner and Kare Connolly. Sage
Lawrence, J. A., & Dodds, A. E. (2003). Goal- Publications, 2003, pp. 517-533.
directed activities and life-span development.
In J. Valsiner & K. Connolly (Eds.), Handbook
of developmental psychology (pp. 517-533).
Sage Publications.
Article in a Reference Book

APA MLA
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): In-Text Citation:
(Author Surname [of Article], Year) (Author Surname [of Article] page
In-Text Citation (Quotation): number)
(Author Surname [of Article], Year, page number)
Works Cited List:
References (Quotation):
Author Surname [of Article], First Initial. Second Author Surname [of Article], First Name.
Initial. (Year). Article title. In Editor First "Entry Title." Reference Book Title:
Initial. Second Initial. Surname (Ed.), Subtitle, [other pertinent editorial
Reference book title: Subtitle (# ed. edition, information] , or . Publisher, Year, pp
Vol. volume #, pp. page range of article). range of article.
Publisher.
Example:
Example
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): In-Text Citation
(Lindgren, 2006) (Lindgren 2:469)
In-Text Citation (Quotation): Works Cited List
(Lindgren, 2006, p.468) Lindgren, Howard. C. "Stereotyping."
References: Encyclopedia of Psychology, edited by
Lindgren, H. C. (1994). Stereotyping. In Ronald Ramon, vol. 3, Wiley, 2006. 2:
Encyclopedia of psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 468-
469). Wiley.
468-469.
Book with no Author
APA MLA
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): In-Text Citation:
(Book title [usually shortened], Year) MLA recommends working
In-Text Citation (Quotation): the citation information into
(Book title [usually shortened], Year, the text of the relevant
page number) paragraph/section/sentence
References:
Work cited list:
Book title: Subtitle. (Year). Publisher.
Book Title: Subtitle. [Edition
Example
information], Publisher, Year.
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):
(Merriam-Webster's, 2005)
In-Text Citation (Quotation):
Example:
(Merriam-Webster's, 2005, p. 3) Merriam Webster's Collegiate
References: Dictionary. 11th ed, Merriam-
Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary Webster, 2014.
(11th ed.). (2014). Merriam-Webster.
E-Book
APA MLA
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):(Author Surname, Year) In-Text Citation:
In-Text Citation (Quotation):(Author Surname, Year, (Author Surname, page number)
page number)
References: Whole Book
Author Surname, First Initial. Second Initial. (Year). Book Work cited list:
title: Subtitle. http://doi.org/xx.xxxxxxxxx OR URL of Author Surname, First Name. Book Title:
the home page of the e-book provider. Subtitle . Publisher, Year. E-book Source,
References: Chapter URL of the source page of the e-book provider.
Author Surname, First Initial. Second Initial(Year
Published). Name of Chapter/Article. In A. Editor &
Example:
B. Editor (Eds.), Name of Book. In-Text Citation:
http://doi.org/xx.xxxxxxxxx OR URL of the home (Potts 55)
page of the e-book provider.
Example
Work cited list:
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):(Ochs, 2004)
In-Text Citation (Quotation):(Ochs, 2004, p. 55)
Potts, Annie. The Science/Fiction of Sex: Feminist
References: Whole Book
Deconstruction and the Vocabularies of
Ochs, S. (2004). A history of nerve functions: From
Heterosex. Routledge, 2002. Women and
animal spirits to molecular mechanisms. Psychology Series. EBSCOhost,
http://www.ebrary.com/corp/ search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
References: Chapter direct=true&AuthType=ip,id&db=e000xna&AN=
Ochs, S. (2004). Introduction to molecular mechanisms. 831965&site=ehost-live.
In A history of nerve functions: From animal spirits to
molecular mechanisms. http://www.ebrary.com/corp/
Government Publication
APA Citation Style does not have a separate category
for government publications. According to APA,
government documents can be considered Books,
Technical/Research Reports or Brochures.
Articles in Journals
Template
MLA: Lastname, Firstname. “Title of Work.” Journal Title
Volume.Issue (Year): page numbers. Medium.
APA: Lastname, First Initial. (Year). Title of work. Journal
Title, Volume(Issue), page numbers.
Examples
MLA: Smith, Linda. “Students in Danger.” New England
Journal of Student Progress 7.2 (2007): 142-154. Print.
APA: Smith, L. (2007). Students in danger. New England
Journal of Student Progress, 7(2), 142-154.
Notice these additional differences…
• MLA puts the article title in quotation marks; APA does not.
• MLA uses the V.I format for volume and issue numbers; APA
uses V(I).
DOI: If a journal article has a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) listed,
you will always include this identifier in your reference as a URL.
Magazine Article
APA MLA
 In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): NOTE:
 (Author Surname, Year) If you use a magazine article online, use the url
 In-Text Citation (Quotation): of the magazine. If there is a doi, use this
 (Author Surname, Year, page number) instead of a url
 References: If the article has multiple authors, list them just
 Author Surname, First Initial. Second Initial. as you would for other sources in MLA style
(Year, Month Day). Article title: Subtitle. In-text citation:
Magazine Title, Volume(issue), page range. (Author Surname page number)
URL of magazine home page [if viewed Example:
online].
(Mehta 30)
 Example
Works Cited list:
 In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

Author Surname, First Name. "Title of Article."
(Kuttner, 2003)
Title of Periodical, Day Month Year, pages.
 In-Text Citation (Quotation): url or doi (if applicable)
 (Kutner, 2003, p. 26)
 References: Example:
 Kuttner, R. (2003, September 8). The great Mehta, Nathan S. "Beyond the Melting
American pension-fund robbery. Business Pot." Time. 9 April 1990, 30.
Week, 24-26. http://www.businessweek.com/
 Newspaper
APA MLA
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): Works Cited List list:
(Author Surname, Year) Author’s Last name, First name and First
In-Text Citation (Quotation): name Last name of any other
(Author Surname, Year, page number) contributors. “Title of the article.” Title
References: of the Newspaper, Version (if applicable),
Author Surname, First Initial. Second Initial. Number, Publication Date, Location in
(Year, Month Day). Article title: Subtitle. Source.[ Title of the database, Online
Newspaper Title, page range. URL [if viewed Source (such as a url).] if online
online] Example:
Example Severson, Kare. and Alexander Martin. "It's
In-Text Citation (Paraphrase): Organic, But Does That Mean It's Safer?"
(Wallace, 2007) Washington Post. 24 May 2007, p. A06
In-Text Citation (Quotation):
(Wallace, 2007, p. A8) In-text citation:
References: (Author Surname)
Wallace, K. (2007, December 4). Passport Example:
applicant finds massive privacy breach. The
(Severson and Martin)
Globe and Mail, pp. A1, A8.
Online Sources
Template
MLA: Author. Title of Site. Sponsor, Date created (use n.d. if not
given). Medium. Date accessed. <URL (optional)/>.
APA: Author. (Year, Month[use n.d. if not given]). Article or page
sub- title.Major Publication Title, volume or issue
number (if available). Retrieved from http://url.
Examples:
MLA: Department of Enrollment Management. 2013 Fall Term
Comparison. University of Houston-Clear Lake, 24 Oct.
2013. Web. 21 Oct. 2014.
APA: Department of Enrollment Management. (2013). 2013 Fall
Term
Comparison. Enrollment Management 2013 Reports.

Retrieved from
http://prtl.uhcl.edu/portal/page/portal/PRV/Enrollment-Management/
images/Enrollment%20and%20SCH-Fall%2013%202 Yr%2010242013
%20final.pdf
68
Website
Basic Format: APA
Author(s) . ( Date ). Website . Retrieved from URL .
Basic Format: MLA
Author(s) . “Website” . Organization , Creation Date .
Web. Access Date .
Secondary source MLA
You read an article by Hulya Ipek, in which she cites
information from a previous study by Lantolf and
Thorne and you want to refer to this information in your
paper:
In text citation
 Lantolf and Thorne’s study found that “what one can do today
with assistance is indicative of what one will be able to do
independently in the future..." (qtd. in Ipek 158).
 In Works Cited :
 Ipek, Hulya. "Comparing and Contrasting First and Second
Language Acquisition: Implications for Language Teachers."
English Language Teaching, vol. 2, no. 2, 2009, pp. 155-63.
Secondary source APA
 In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):
 Fong’s 2003 study (as cited in Bertram, 2009) found
that older students’ memory can be as good as that of
young people, but this depends on how memory is
tested.
 References:
Bertram, S.A. (2009). How we Remember: Testing our
capacity to remember. Jossey-Bass
Publishers.
 Tip: Do not include Fong (2003) in your References;
do include Bertram (2009).
Citation Management Software
Mendeley.
EasyBib.
EndNote.
ReadCube Papers.
Cite this for me (Formerly RefMe)
Reference Manager.
Zotero.
Citavi.
Where to go for further help…
The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL)—known for its simplified
explanation of MLA and APA citation styles:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

“Purdue OWL: MLA Formatting and Style Guide,”

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/
“Purdue OWL: APA Formatting and Style Guide,”
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01

For further examples of citations and reference pages, you can review
Cornell University’s informative website:
https://www.library.cornell.edu/research/citation/apa
https://utica.libguides.com/c.php?g=703243&p=4991626
https://guides.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/APA

73
Thank you