BIO 111

Module 4: Cellular Structure

Unified Cell Theory
• Botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann
proposed the unified cell theory
• All living things are composed of one or more cells. From the
simplest of cells to the more complex organisms are all made up of
cells

• The cell is the basic (and smallest) unit of life that can function
independently

• Rudolf Virchow later made important contributions to this theory.

• New cells arise from existing cells. All cells come from preexisting
cells
Cells
• Most cells are very small ranging from about 1 to 100 µm in diameter
• Why are cells so small?
• Because they exchange nutrients and waste with their external environment via diffusion
• All parts of the cell must remain close to the external environment to have ready access to necessary
materials and the ability to get rid of waste
 Cells

• Microscopes are used to study forms and parts of life

• Light microscopes: study living cells. Advantage: we are to see live cells
in action

• The disadvantage: the resolution is not as good as it could be

• Electron microscopes: more powerful than light microscopes.

• Advantage: higher magnification and higher resolution

• Disadvantage: sample preparation kills the specimen because we have to

coat the sample. We can’t see life cells using these
Individual Cell Size is Limited
• Cell size is limited because volume increases much more quickly than does cell surface area

• This limits the size of prokaryotes to allow ions and organic material to enter and spread throughout
them quickly

• Eukaryotic cells have structural adaptations to enhance cellular transport

All Cells Share Four Features
• Since all living things are made up of cells there share common features

• A plasma membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its
surrounding environment

• Cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like region within the cell in which other cellular
components are found

• DNA, the genetic material of the cell

• Ribosomes, particles that synthesize proteins

Prokaryotic Cells

• A simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-
bound organelle Concepts of Biology.
• Bacteria and Archaea
• Bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan and many have a polysaccharide capsule
• Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae
Eukaryotic Cells

• A eukaryotic cell is a cell that has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound
compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have specialized functions
• Eukaryotic = true nucleus
• Organelle = little organ
• Typically larger than prokaryotic cells
• May be single-cells organisms or may be part of a multicellular organism
Shared Characteristics of Eukaryotes

• Nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear pores

• Mitochondria
• A cytoskeleton containing the structural and motility components
• Flagella and cilia, organelles associated with cell motility
• Chromosomes
• Mitosis, a process of nuclear division
• Sex, a process of genetic recombination unique to eukaryotes
• Cell walls in all major lineages
 Prokaryotic Vs Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
• Membrane
No NucleusBond Nucleus
• Lacks membrane
Numerous Membrane
bound
Bond
organelles
Organelles
• Typically 10-100
1-10μMμM
• CircularDNA
Linear DNAchromosomes
Genome

Both possess plasma membranes, ribosomes, all four classes

of macromolecules, have DNA as genetic material and use the
same genetic code.
Table 1. Components of Eukaryotic Cells and Their Functions
Cell Component Function Present in Present in Present in Plant
Prokaryotes? Animal Cells? Cells?

Plasma Separates cell from external environment; controls passage of organic molecules, ions, water, Yes Yes Yes
Membrane oxygen, and wastes into and out of the cell

Cytoplasm Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic reactions; medium in which organelles are Yes Yes Yes
found

Nucleoid Location of DNA Yes No No

Nucleus Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and proteins No Yes Yes

Ribosomes Protein synthesis Yes Yes Yes

Mitochondria ATP production/cellular respiration No Yes Yes

Peroxisomes Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino acids, and detoxifies poisons No Yes Yes

Vesicles and vacuoles Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells No Yes Yes
Table 1. Components of Eukaryotic Cells and Their Functions (continued)
Cell Component Function Present in Present in Present in
Prokaryotes? Animal Plant Cells?
Cells?
Centrosome Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells; source of microtubules in animal No Yes No
cells
Lysosomes Digestion of macromolecules; recycling of worn-out organelles No Yes No

Cell wall Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell shape Yes, primarily No Yes, primarily
peptidoglycan in cellulose
bacteria but not
Archaea
Chloroplasts Photosynthesis No No Yes
Endoplasmic reticulum Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids No Yes Yes

Golgi apparatus Modifies, sorts, tags, packages, and distributes lipids and proteins No Yes Yes

Cytoskeleton Maintains cell’s shape, secures organelles in specific positions, allows cytoplasm Yes Yes Yes
and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular organisms to move
independently

Flagella Cellular locomotion Some Some No, except for

some plant
sperm
Cilia Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along extracellular surface of plasma No Some No
membrane, and filtration
Cytoplasm: Found in all Cells

• Cytoplasm: the matrix inside cells

• Slightly different in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
• In eukaryotic cells, which have a nucleus, the cytoplasm is everything between the plasma membrane
and the nuclear envelope
• In prokaryotes, which lack a nucleus, cytoplasm simply means everything found inside the plasma
membrane
• One major component of the cytoplasm in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the gel-
like cytosol
• A water-based solution that contains ions, small molecules, and macromolecules
The Endomembrane System

• Membrane organelles that are inside the cells and how they work together
• They are four distinctive organelles
• Nucleus
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Golgi apparatus
Eukaryotic Organelles: The Nucleus
• The heart of the cell; tells the cell what to do. The nucleus is the most prominent
organelle in a cell
• One of the unique characteristics of eukaryotic cells
• Sometimes called the nuclear envelope because surrounded by a double-
membrane structure punctuated by pores
• Has two layers of phospholipids
 Eukaryotic Organelles: The Nucleus
• Why is the nucleus protected?
• Contains all the genetic information the cell needs to maintain homeostasis
• Houses the cell’s DNA in the form of chromatin and directs the synthesis of
ribosomes and proteins
• If everything had access to the DNA, it would be destroyed
 Eukaryotic Organelles: The Nucleus
• The mRNA molecules exit the nucleus through the
nuclear pores, which are holes in the double-
membrane nuclear envelope

• Also, inside the nucleus is the nucleolus, a dense spot

that assembles the components of ribosomes

• Fig. show the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, and

nucleolus
Eukaryotic Organelles: The Endomembrane System
• Manufacturing facilities within a cell

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of

interconnected membranous tubules

• Is a network of membranes extending from the nuclear

envelope

• Endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm”, and

reticulum means “network”

• Collectively modify proteins and synthesize lipids

• Rough and Smooth ER have specialized functions
Fig.3.14: Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Ribosomes that are outside of its membrane: Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: synthesizes lipids

Fig.3.14: Rough & Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosomes: Found in all Cells
• Site for protein synthesis: take amino acids and make polypeptide
chains
• Some ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol making proteins that
remain within the fluid of a cell
• Other ribosomes are attached to the outside of the nucleus or the
endoplasmic reticulum

• Ribosomes are the cellular structures responsible for protein

synthesis
• Free ribosomes appear as either clusters or single tiny dots floating freely
in the cytoplasm
• May be attached to plasma membrane or ER
• Found in practically every cell, although they are smaller in
prokaryotic cells
 Golgi Apparatus
• Think warehouse transport/ Post Office
• Is a stack of flat, membrane-enclosed sacs that function as a
processing center
• Sort and packages materials into vesicles, which move toward the
cell membrane
• Proteins from the ER pass through the series of Golgi sacs, where
they complete their intricate folding and become functional
• Sometimes proteins are not quite ready to work in their environment
some make modifications to their tertiary structure so that it can
perform better in its environment
 Mitochondria
• Think powerplant
• Organelles that use cellular respiration to extract the needed energy from food
• Has two membrane layers: enclose the mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae are folds of the inner membrane
• Within the matrix is DNA that encodes proteins for mitochondrial function; ribosomes occupy the
matrix as well
Eukaryotic Organelles: Mitochondria

• Mitochondria (singular = mitochondrion) are often called the “powerhouses” or “energy

factories” of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
the cell’s main energy-carrying molecule
• Oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles
• Have their own ribosomes and DNA
 Lysosome
• Think recycling center/waste management
• Contain enzymes that dismantle and recycle food
particles, captured bacteria, worn-out organelles, and
debris
• They are so named because their enzyme lyse, or cut
apart, their substrates

Figure 3.16: Lysosome

 Vacuole
• Think long term storage

• Most plant cells lack lysosomes

• Contains a watery solution of enzymes that degrade and recycle

molecules and organelles

• Most of the growth from a plant cell comes from an increase in

the volume of its vacuole

• In some plants, the vacuole occupies up to 99% of the cell’s

volume

• As the vacuole acquires water, it exerts pressure against the cell

membrane Figure 3.17: Vacuole
 Peroxisomes
• All eukaryotic cells
• Organelle that contains several types of enzymes
that disposes of toxic substances
• Resemble lysosome in size and function,
peroxisomes originate at the ER not the Golgi
• In the liver and kidney cells help dismantle toxins
from the blood
• Break down fatty acids and produce cholesterol
and other ; lipids
Eukaryotic Organelles: Vesicles and Peroxisomes

• Vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that • Peroxisomes are small, round organelles
function in storage and transport enclosed by single membranes
• Can fuse with the membranes of other • Carry out oxidation reactions that break down
cellular components fatty acids and amino acids
• Perform a variety of functions • Detoxify many poisons that may enter the body
• Metabolism
• Transport
• Buoyancy control
• Enzyme storage
 Cytoskeleton
• Think Infrastructure
• The cytosol of a eukaryotic cell contains a cytoskeleton
• Cytoskeleton : an intricate network of protein ”tracks” and tubules
• Functions: It is a transportation system
-Provides physical support necessary to maintain the cell’s
characteristic 3D shape

-It aids in cell division and helps connect cells to one

another

-Enables cells-or part of a cell move.

 Eukaryotic Structures: The Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton includes three major components
• They are distinguished by their protein type, diameter and how they aggregate into larger
structures
• Microfilaments are the thinnest of the cytoskeletal fibers and function in moving cellular
components.
• Intermediate filaments are of intermediate diameter and have structural functions
• Microtubules are the thickest of the cytoskeletal fibers and guide organelle movement and are the
structures that pull chromosomes to their poles during cell division
Microtubules also form Flagella and Cilia

• Flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma
membrane and are used to move an entire cell
• Flagella are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
• When cilia (singular = cilium) are present, however, they are many in number and extend
along the entire surface of the plasma membrane
In-vitro Effect of Drug Uptake

31 Obayemi J.D et al., Sci Rep 10, 8212 (2020)

The Plasma Membrane Holds it all Together
• Eukaryotes and prokaryotes both have a phospholipid bilayer plasma membrane
 Eukaryotic Cell
• All eukaryotic organisms share common features on a cellular level

Figure 3.6 Anatomy of an Animal Cell Figure 3.7 Anatomy of a Plant Cell
Plant Cell Specific Organelles

• The cell wall is a rigid covering that protects the cell, provides structural support, and gives
shape to the cell
• Found in plants
• Fungal and protist cells also have cell walls
• Prokaryotes also have cell walls
• Each type is made of different macromolecules
• Chloroplasts function in photosynthesis and can be found in photoautotrophic eukaryotic
cells such as plants and algae
• Plasmodesmata are numerous channels that pass between the cell walls of adjacent plant
cells, connecting their cytoplasm and enabling signal molecules and nutrients to be
transported from cell to cell
Animal Cell Specific Organelles

• Lysosomes are the cell’s “garbage disposal

• The extracellular matrix hold cells together to form a tissue, and it also allows the cells
within the tissue to communicate with each other
• Cells can also communicate with each other by direct contact, referred to as intercellular
junctions
• A tight junction is a watertight seal between two adjacent animal cells
• Desmosomes act like spot welds between adjacent epithelial cells
• Gap junctions in animal cells are like plasmodesmata in plant cells in that they are channels between
adjacent cells that allow for the transport of ions, nutrients, and other substances that enable cells to
communicate
 Animal vs. Plant
Animal
Plant Cells
Cells
• Lysosomes
Chloroplasts
• Central Vacuole
• Cell Wall
Both have Nucleus, Ribosomes, ER,
Golgi, Mitochondria, Cytoskeleton,
• Long term storage
• Think recycling center/waste management
• Think powerplant
• Think warehouse transport/ Post Office
• Site for protein synthesis
• Manufacturing facilities within a cell
• The heart of the cell
• Security Guard/ border control officer
• All eukaryotic cells and that contains several types of enzymes that disposes of toxic
substances
Quick Review

• What is the unified cell theory?

• When would different types of microscopes be used?
• List the features common to all cells
• What are the two groups of prokaryotes?
• List the key features that define eukaryotic cells.
• What is the main limit on cell size?
• Can you label all the organelles in a eukaryotic cell?
• Match each organelle with its function
• What organelles are unique to animals? To plants?