TOPIC SEVEN:

LEADERSHIP

SIKAWALA MUSONDA
 Leadership and Motivation

 Leadership may be defined as the influence that

particular individuals (leaders) exert upon the goal
achievement of others (subordinates) in an
organizational context.
 There are two types of leaders:

 Emergent leaders - those who earn leadership positions

through their expertise, skills, abilities to influence
others, or personal acceptability by the group;

 Assigned leaders - those who are given power to exercise

influence through appointment.
 Leader Qualities

 It is apparent that leaders must possess many qualities in order

to be successful and maintain the support of subordinates. The
following is a partial list of these qualities.

1. Intellectual stimulation: People are stimulated to think of

problems and solutions in new and different ways. This depends on
creativity, novelty and the ability to help people empathize with a
new situation.
 Leader Qualities

2. Energy: The leader must be willing to exert the energy

and effort that is necessary to see the task through to
completion. Leaders show by example.

3. Self-confidence: Leaders are self assured and possess a

confidence in the task, their ability to perform, and the
abilities of subordinates to contribute.
 Leader Qualities

4. Assertiveness: Leaders express their feelings honestly and

directly in appropriate, spontaneous, and non-manipulative
ways. Assertiveness communicates respect for others while
acting in one’s own best interest.

5. Dominance: When appropriate, successful leaders must be

able to take control and dominate an issue, environment or
situation. The successful leader also knows when to relinquish
control and involve others.
 Leader Qualities

6. Motivation: Successful leaders know what they want, have a clear path to

achieving it, and are “driven” by intrinsic rewards. Whether it’s Maslows need for

self-actualization, Alderfer’s growth needs, or McClelland’s need for power,

leaders are driven by a need for success and achievement.

7. Honesty and Integrity: To be recognized for the right reasons, leaders must be

seen as being above reproach. Honesty and integrity are two factors that allow

leaders to enjoy the support of subordinates. Without these qualities, there is a

perception of mistrust which leads to a lack of confidence.

 Leader Qualities

8. Charisma:

Charismatic leaders possess the personal qualities that give them the
potential to have extraordinary influence over others. They tend to
command strong loyalty and devotion and in turn, inspire enthusiastic
dedication and commitment to the leader and his or her mission.
Dedication is inspired from an emotional commitment and followers
come to trust and identify with the leader. Charismatics tend to possess
all of the qualities noted above, and there is some argument that
charisma is in itself a style of leadership.
 Leadership Models and Theories

 Leadership model or theory contains ideas on how to lead

effectively and/or become a better leader. Numerous
theories and versions of theories on leadership exist.
However, the general conclusion of leadership research is
that leadership principles are timeless, while the models
that examine those principles may change.
 Leadership Trait Theory

 One of the early approaches to understanding leadership

was the identification of specific “traits” that leaders
supposedly possessed.

 Leadership traits represent the personal characteristics

that differentiate leaders from followers.
 Leadership Trait Theory

 In psychology, a trait is a stable characteristic that

potentially lasts throughout one's entire life. It is
something that is relatively inflexible, which would make
it difficult for managers to significantly change these
traits among their employees (or individuals changing
their spouse’s traits).
 Leadership Trait Theory

 Trait-based theory, by implication, asserts that the best

leaders are born to lead and that effective leadership and
potential leaders are determined by a largely pre-destined
and unchanging set of character traits.
 Leadership Trait Theory

 From a training and development standpoint, trait-based theory

also implies that if a person does not possess the “right”
leadership traits, then he or she will not be able to lead
effectively, or, certainly, will not lead as well as a natural-born
leader.

 Training and development can foster leadership ability to a

degree, but what really matters in this concept is possessing
the appropriate traits or personality profile.
 Leadership Behavior Theory

 Behavioral theory, assumes that you can learn to become a good leader
because you are not drawing on personality traits. Your actions, or what
you do, define your leadership ability.

 The Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid shown below identified five kinds of
leadership behavior.

 The value of the Grid is that it provides leaders a way of communicating

with subordinates more effectively by becoming more aware of their
leadership style. It is suggested that the Team Style is the ideal leadership
behavior.
Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid
 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

 Country Club Style (High People: Low Task) -- Here the leader has a high concern
for others and likes to be involved with them. On the other hand, he or she has a
low concern for the task. Usually the emphasis of the leader is to cultivate a high
level of friendly relationships with the led group. So although leaders like this
appear to care about their people and want to create a comfortable and friendly
environment, this style is often not good for creating or producing results. People
feel good and happy, but what they are supposed to do lacks priority. Ironically, the
group suffers ultimately because they fail to achieve. The style is common among
leaders who are afraid of upsetting people, and/or who fear rejection and being
disliked.
 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

 Impoverished Style (Low People: Low Task) -- Here the

leader has both a low concern for people and a low
concern for the task. Those who would adopt this
approach are typically “leaders” who care mainly about
themselves and are afraid of making mistakes. Not
surprisingly, Blake and Mouton determined that this is the
least effective approach to leadership.
 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

 Middle-of-the-Road Style (Mid People: Mid Task) -- This is essentially

ineffective compromise. Some concern for the task exists, and,
equally, some concern for people, but it might also be said that there
is not enough of either. Leaders adopting this behavioral approach try
to address the needs of the task and those of their followers to some
extent, but do so without conviction, skill, or insight, which reduces
their effectiveness. Leadership generally requires a good degree of
authority and decisiveness, so a style that lacks these characteristics
has much room for improvement.
 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

 Produce or Perish Style (Low People: High Task) -- Here we

see a high focus on the task with little or no concern for
people. This style is often referred to as autocratic. Leaders
using this style seek to control and dominate others. A
leader like this will commonly take the view that staff
should be grateful to be employed and paid a salary.
Motivation is often attempted through a threat of
punishment, such as being fired, which makes this a
dictatorial style.
 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

 In extreme cases it would be rightly regarded as ruthless.

Certainly, it can be effective in the short term.
Furthermore, where a group is failing to react suitably to
a serious crisis then it may actually be a viable style for a
short period. However, the approach is not sustainable,
especially where followers have the option to walk away.
 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

 Team Style (High People: High Task) -- This style combines a

high concern for and involvement in the group with a strong
well-organized and communicated focus on achieving the
task. Blake and Mouton saw this as the ideal behavioral
approach. Leaders who behave like this manage to blend
concern for both people and organizational aims by using a
collaborative teamwork approach.
 Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid

 This involves considerable dialogue that enables the

development of a shared (not imposed) motivation to
achieving the organization's goals. This style normally
requires that followers/the group are suitably mature and
skilled for a high level of involvement. The style is
difficult to use, and may be inadvisable when leading
inexperienced people to produce challenging and critical
results in a new or strange situation.
 Contingency Theory or Situational
Leadership Theory

 According to contingency theory, what works for a leader in one

situation may not work in another.

 This theory attempts to explain why a leader who is very

successful in one situation may fail when in another new
situation or when the situation changes. While researchers have
proposed several contingency theories, one of the most famous
was developed originally by P. Hersey and K. H. Blanchard.
 Contingency Theory or Situational
Leadership Theory

 To an extent, the effectiveness of a leader depends on

whether his or her followers accept or reject him/her, as
well as on the extent to which the follower have the ability
and willingness to accomplish a specific task. The key words
are acceptance and readiness. According to Hersey and
Blanchard, the motivation and the abilities of various
leaders will affect their decisions in a given situation.
 Contingency Theory or Situational
Leadership Theory

 They group leaders into four styles of leadership: delegating,

supporting, coaching, and directing. Their theory assumes
that each of these leadership styles can be effective,
depending on the development level of the individual or
people you are leading. In this theory, then, how you lead
isn’t a question merely of you and your skills and abilities; it
also depends heavily on your followers’ abilities and
attitudes.
 Contingency Theory or Situational
Leadership Theory
 The Directing, or “telling,” leadership style is about task behavior. It
involves telling people what they should be doing (one-way
communication):

 What to do

 How to do it

 Where to do it

 When to do it

 The giving of direction is followed by closely supervising their

performance.
 Contingency Theory or Situational
Leadership Theory

 Coaching, also called “selling,” also involves directing

people, but in a more supportive way. The leader now
attempts to hear the suggestions, ideas, and opinions of
his/her followers, which translates to a two-way
communication. Supporting involves relationship behavior,
which includes:
 Contingency Theory or Situational
Leadership Theory

 Delegating requires minimal direction and support. The

leader enables by discussing problems with the followers
and coming to agreement on the nature of the problem.
The decision-making for addressing the problem is handled
by the subordinates, who “run their own show.”
 Contingency Theory or Situational
Leadership Theory

 Good leaders, according to Hersey and Blanchard, must

adapt their leadership styles to the “maturity” and
willingness of their subordinates. This creates a new level of
complexity for leaders: how thoroughly the willingness,
motivation, and abilities of the followers are considered can
decide how successfully they will be led. In this and in
similar theories, the leader isn’t everything; the followers
must be included in the equation.
 Leadership Styles:

 The various leadership styles that exist provide no

guidance on the kind of leadership that leaders should
offer; they merely reflect what kinds exist.
 Authoritarian / Autocratic Leadership

 The authoritarian leader is all about “control” and managing the

completion of tasks.

 Authoritarian leaders often approach situations with the attitude that

other people are innately unwilling to get involved and are basically
unreliable. They tend to use their power to dominate their followers. In
the authoritarian style, most (if not all) policies are determined by the
leader. Decision-making for the authoritarian leader is usually autocratic,
which means no input from others until after the decision is made. This
often results in the lack of creative solutions to problems, which can
ultimately hurt the performance of the organization.
 Authoritarian Leadership

 The authoritarian style typically involves a focus on tasks, in

which leaders are likely to organize and define the roles of
the members of their group (followers). This requires
explaining which activities each is to do and when, where,
and how tasks are to be accomplished.

 The authoritarian leader in an organization will tend to

spend more time on management issues than on
interpersonal relationships.
 Authoritarian Leadership

 Authoritarian leadership is very effective in those situations in which

people have a high level of trust in the organization, when the task is
straightforward, when a decision needs to be made quickly, and/or
when the leader is given responsibility for directing action.

 A danger in authoritarian leadership is the tendency toward negative

motivation: using threats, coercion, and other non-reinforcing means
to achieve results. This can create a culture of crisis in the
organization, with the leader as either oppressor or rescuer or both.
 The democratic style

 The democratic style is at the other end of the leadership spectrum. It

assumes that the power of leaders is granted by the group they are to
lead, and that people can be basically self-directed and creative if they
are motivated to do so. The democratic style of leadership, therefore,
tends to be more participative; policies evolve from group discussion
and from a group decision-making process. By sharing decision-making
and other responsibilities, the group is more likely to make full use of
all the potential of its members, and individual self-esteem tends to
increase.
 The democratic style

 Furthermore, the more that members participate in making the

decisions that affect them, have a clear picture of the goals of the
group, and have a recognized part to play in helping the group reach
those goals, the higher will be the group’s cohesion and commitment
to the process.

 However, when everything is a matter of group discussion and

decision, not much room for leadership is left. The value of a
cooperative effort should not be minimized.
 The democratic style

 With shared leadership, an increased sense of “ownership” of plans and

ideas by all members exists, and the process becomes more enjoyable.

 Democratic leaders are more likely to develop and maintain personal

relationships between themselves and members of their group (followers)
by opening up improved channels of communication, providing
“psychological strokes,” facilitating change in the behavior of the group,
and demonstrating change in themselves. This leader is more likely to
“inspire” change than “impose” change, as Warren Bennis observes.
 The democratic style

 It has been said that a good leader inspires people to have

confidence in him/her; a great leader inspires people to have
confidence in themselves.

 Democratic leadership tends to work best in situations where

group members are skilled and eager to share their knowledge.
The flow of work in an organization needs to allow plenty of
time to allow people to contribute, develop a plan, and then
decide on the best course of action.
 The Charismatic Leader

 People tend to think of leaders as people who influence

others to follow by the power of their charismatic
personality

 The “charismatic” leader is able to articulate a compelling

vision that responds to the needs and aspirations of the
followers. Through their relationship with the charismatic
leader, the followers gain feelings of power and build their
self-esteem.
 The Charismatic Leader

 Actually, leaders don’t have charisma; followers give leaders

charisma. People tend to ascribe charisma to a leader who
appears to meet their ideals and their needs.

 Charismatic leadership relies on the twin effect of a leader's

personality and a strong belief by followers that this special
person is the one to lead them in their hour of need. Charisma
can be based on anything from physical appearance to past
actions and successes.
 The Charismatic Leader

 Charismatic leaders are generally very skilled

communicators. They tend to be individuals who are both
verbally eloquent, but also able to communicate to
followers on a deep, emotional level.

 These charismatic leaders use effective communication

with their followers to gain their trust, and then influence
and persuade them to follow.
 The Charismatic Leader

 Charismatic leaders also pay a great deal of attention to scanning and

reading their environment, and are good at picking up the moods and
concerns of both individuals and larger audiences. They then will try
to hone their actions and words to suit the situation.

 Charisma can also be negative if the leader becomes self-centered

and domineering.

 Charismatic leaders can fall into the trap of charming themselves, a

result of the heady recognition they get from the followers.
 The Charismatic Leader

 Furthermore, when an organization is no longer in the crisis that may

have brought this leader forward, the leader may attempt to cling to
power, which could drive other potential leaders away.

 When there is a lack of concern or responsiveness to followers and

constituents, the charismatic leader can lose his/her luster.

 Charismatic leadership can also create dependency among followers.

This may cause followers to assume that this leader has all the
answers, and so followers take less responsibility for themselves and
for important initiatives.
 The Charismatic Leader

 The other side of this coin is that when charismatic

leaders fail in some manner, then their credibility suffers,
together with the wellbeing of the dependent followers.
These failures can be the inability to demonstrate
innovation and responsibility to their followers, or
organizational goals are increasingly not met, or group
effectiveness and results are negatively impacted.
 The Charismatic Leader

 On the other hand, charismatic leaders are often better at

creating and stimulating necessary and sometimes swift change.
Traditional leaders, more correctly defined as “managers,” are
frequently disposed toward lower levels of risk, preferring to
administer rather than to truly lead. They are more inclined
toward the pragmatic rather than the visionary. These qualities
rarely bring about significant transformations in organizations.
Creativity demands intuition, uncertainty, unconventionality,
and individual expression.
 The Charismatic Leader

 The charismatic leader embodies many of these creative

forces and is able to stimulate enthusiastic responses from
those who follow. In the final analysis, Peter Drucker, one
of the most respected of all management consultants,
came to the conclusion that effective leaders have little
or no charisma. He was of the belief that popularity is not
leadership; results are.
 Transactional Leadership

 Another leadership style, transactional leadership, assumes that

people are motivated primarily by reward and punishment.

 The belief is that employees perform their best when the chain
of command is definite and clear, and that reward or
punishment is contingent upon performance. They should be
happy to hand over all authority and responsibility to a leader,
which is the opposite thinking of an empowered employee.
 The focus of the transactional leader is on maintaining the
status quo, and the primary goal of the followers is to obey the
instructions and commands of the leader.

 The transactional leader is more a manager than a leader, and

is highly focused on getting tasks accomplished, providing very
clear direction, and overseeing productivity in detail. He or she
tends to think inside the box when solving organizational
problems.
 The concern is with the work process, rather than with
forward-thinking ideas. Rules, procedures, and standards are
essential to the transactional leader.

 This type of leader tends to carefully monitor and micro-

manage a subordinate’s work, making corrections throughout
the process. When a subordinate fails to meet expectations,
the next step is often a penalty or punishment.
 A major downside of the transactional style is that it does not
consider other potential factors that may influence outcomes and
therefore affect leadership effectiveness. For example, if clear
behavioral or outcome expectations are expressed by top leadership,
but the reward for achieving them is not considered adequate, staff
leaders may not be motivated to work hard to make these outcomes
happen.

 The strictly transactional leader is unable to embody qualities like

empowerment and development of employees,
 Transformational Leadership Clearly the leader who

commands compelling causes has an extraordinary potential

influence over followers. James MacGregor Burns. In the

1970s and 1980s, researchers such as J. M. Burns and B. M.

Bass defined the concept of transformational leadership.

 Transformational leadership grows out of the assumption
that people will follow a leader who inspires and
motivates them. In this leadership style, the leader
motivates and inspires by developing a compelling vision,
selling that vision, and focusing on developing
relationships with followers as a teacher, mentor, and
coach.
 Although the charismatic leader and the transformational
leader can have many similarities, their main difference is
in their basic focus. Whereas the transformational leader
has a basic focus on transforming the organization and,
quite possibly, their followers, the charismatic leader may
not want to change anything except to improve on his or
her popularity.
 A transformational leader is the result of significant and
continuous learning and relationship building.

 He or she engages subordinates by spending a great deal

of time building trust and demonstrating a high level of
personal integrity. The ultimate goal is to “transform” the
goals, vision, and sense of purpose of the followers,
molding them into a cohesive team.
 This leadership style tends to help motivate followers to be
loyal and dedicated workers, with the goal also of helping
every member of the group be successful. This type or style
of leadership often focuses on the “big picture” and on
concern for people and their individual needs.

 Four main components (the four “I’s”) the transformational

leader strives to achieve are:
 Idealized Influence -- A transformational leader’s
behavior becomes a role model for employees through
exemplary behavior that instills pride and trust among
followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader,
they try to emulate this individual and personally adopt
his or her ideals.
 Inspirational Motivation -- A transformational leader
usually has a sense of team spirit, enthusiasm, passion,
and optimism. This type of leader helps employees
dedicate themselves to the organization’s vision.
Certainly, leaders can’t motivate followers, but they can
provide an inspiration for achievement.
 Intellectual Stimulation -- A transformational leader must
question old assumptions, cast existing problems in a new
light, encourage creativity and innovation, and look at
more effective ways to make decisions. In this leadership
style, a leader solicits ideas, and nurtures and develops
people who think independently and who value learning.
 Individualized Consideration -- A transformational leader
pays attention to the needs of individuals, and seeks to
develop followers by supporting, mentoring, and coaching
employees to reach their full potential.
 A concern exists to keep lines of communication open so
that followers feel free to share ideas in this supportive
environment. This type of leader also makes a strong
effort to recognize followers for their unique
contributions.

 These four components are essential when it comes to

transforming an organization and empowering employees.
 The Servant Leader:

 Servant Leadership represents a philosophy in which leaders focus on

increased service to others rather than on increasing their own power.

 Servant leaders are givers, not takers. Service is the rent we pay for
the privilege of living on this earth. N. Eldon Tanner. The phrase
“Servant Leadership” was coined by Robert K. Greenleaf in The
Servant as Leader, an essay that he first published in 1970. In that
essay, he said: The servant-leader is servant first… It begins with the
natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious
choice brings one to aspire to lead.
 Rick Warren in The Purpose Driven Life. Greenleaf scholars generally agree
that the following behaviors are central to the development of a servant-
leader:

1. Listening Leaders have traditionally been valued for their communication

and decision-making skills. While these are also important skills for the
servant-leader, they need to be reinforced by a deep commitment to
listening intently to others. The servant leader particularly needs to pay
attention to what remains unspoken in the management setting. Listening,
coupled with regular periods of reflection, is essential to the growth of
the servant-leader.
2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize with and
understand others’ feelings and emotion. It is assumed that
an individual has good intentions even when he or she
performs poorly. Workers may be considered not only as
employees, but also as people who need respect and
appreciation for their personal development.
3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselves and
others whole in the face of failure or suffering. A servant
leader tries to help people solve their problems and conflicts
in relationships, because he or she wants to encourage and
support the personal development of each individual.
4. Awareness Servant-leaders are very self-aware of their
strengths and limitations. They have the ability to view
situations from a more integrated, holistic position. As a
result, they gain a better understanding about organizational
ethics and values.
5. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion than
positional authority when making decisions and trying to
influence others. They do not take advantage of their power
and status by coercing compliance; instead, they try to
convince those they manage. The servant-leader is therefore
effective at building consensus within groups.
 6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders seek to nurture their
abilities to “dream great dreams.” Servant-leaders take the
time and effort to develop a desirable vision of the future.
They seek an appropriate balance between a short-term, day-
to-day focus and a long-term positive direction. That means
they have the ability to see beyond the current activities of the
operating organization and can focus on long term goals.
7. Foresight the ability to anticipate the likely outcome of a
course of action or a situation. The servant leader is able to
learn from the past to achieve a better understanding about
the current reality. This foresight also enables the servant
leader to identify consequences about the future, a
characteristic closely related to conceptualization.
8. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume that they are
stewards of the people and resources they manage. Servant
leadership is seen as an obligation to help and serve others.
Openness and persuasion are considered more important
than control.
9. Commitment to the growth of people Servant-leaders are
committed to people beyond their immediate work role. Servant-
leaders are convinced that people have an intrinsic value beyond
their contributions as workers. They commit to fostering an
environment that encourages the personal and professional growth
of their follower and employees. The servant-leader will also
encourage the ideas of everyone and involve workers in decision-
making. Servant-leaders believe that their role is to help other
people achieve their goals.
10. Building Community Servant-leaders strive to create a
sense of community both within and outside the work
organization.
 Situational Leadership

 As we have seen, many theories and techniques exist for

determining the right leadership styles for individuals in an
organization.

 It can be argued that the best type of leadership is determined by

the specific situation, and that no one style of leadership is
appropriate for all given workplace situations. Effective leaders
should be aware of where they are with a specific follower, and
where that follower is in his/her own stage of leadership
development.
For example, giving staff too much or too little direction can have a
negative impact on their performance and their development as
leaders. Therefore, identifying the leadership style for an organization
should ideally take into careful consideration the specific task, the
complexity of the organization, and qualifications of the employees.

 A variety of leadership styles may be needed to lead different

groups, such as the employees, the Board of Directors, volunteer
groups associated with the organization, etc.
Conclusions about Leadership Styles

 After 50 years of working with corporate and organizational

leaders, Peter Drucker concluded that “leadership styles”
and “leadership traits” do not exist.

 No particular style appears to exist that is practiced by

effective leaders, but, instead, different approaches to
leading are used at different times and in different
situations.
The End