Bearing materials- desired characteristics

(properties)
Load capacity-
– compressive strength : The allowable compressive strength the material can
withstand without any appreciable change in shape or plastic deformation is
the primary deciding factor in deciding a bearing material
– Plain bearings are expected to have the following characteristics for the ease
of functioning and satisfying the design criteria

– Strength to take care of load-speed combinations

– Fatigue strength, the bearing strength of a beraing alloys is a function of the

range and number of stress cycles to which it is subjected.
– Fatigue strength. The bearing material should have sufficient fatigue strength
so that it can withstand repeated loads without developing surface fatigue
cracks. It is of major importance in aircraft and automotive engines where
bearing materials are subjected to stress cycle as in internal combustion
engines
– The retention of strength characteristics of softer bearing materials at
temperature of operation which may rise within the design limit
 Bearing materials- desired characteristics
Compatibility-
–This is measure of anti welding property of a bearing material when operating with a
given journal material is called compatibility.
–The shaft and bearing materials in rubbing condition should not produce localized
welds leading to scoring or seizure. A good bearing-shaft metal combination is
necessary.
Corrosion resistance-
– Under the influence of time and temperature lubricating oil tends to form acids and
peroxide. This cause corrosion of some materials due to insoluble organic soaps are
deposited in the system.
–The oxidized products of oils corrode many bearing alloys. Lead cadmium zinc copper
and silver are the once mostly subjected to corrosion.
–Some protection can be provided by forming a thin layer of anti-corrosion materials on
the bearing alloy surface
Conformability-
–It is ability of bearing material to accommodate shaft deflections and bearing
inaccuracies by plastic deformation(creep) without excessive wear and heating.
–It helps to accommodate misalignment and increase the pressure bearing area (reduce
the localized forcse).
–Relatively softer bearing alloys are better in this respect
 Bearing materials- desired characteristics (contd.)
Embeddability-
–It is the ability of a material to embed or obsorb dirt and foreign particles to
prevent scoring and wear (decrease 3rd. Body abrasion).
–Materials with high hardness values have poor embeddability characteristics
–Any foreign particles getting in to the alloys having good conformability and
embedability and have relatively low hardness low fatigue strength, low modulus
of elasticity.
 Low coefficient of friction- the material combinations of sliding surfaces, along
with the lubricant should provide a low friction coefficient for reducing damage and
lower running costs
 Low thermal expansion- The bearing material should be of low coefficient of
thermal expansion, so that when the bearing operates over a wide range of
temperature, there is no undue change in the clearance. The size should remain
nearly constant during periods of temperature change
 High thermal conductivity- The ability to dissipate heat quickly due to friction
Thermal conductivity. The bearing material should be of high thermal conductivity so
as to permit the rapid removal of the heat generated by friction. 8. Thermal expansion.
The bearing material should be of low coefficient of thermal expansion, so that when
the bearing operates over a wide range of temperature, there is no undue change in the
clearance.
 Bondability. Many high capacity bearings are made by bonding one or more thin
layers of a bearing material to a high strength steel shell. Thus, the strength of the
bond i.e. bondability is an important consideration in selecting bearing material .
 Bearing materials- desired characteristics (contd.)
 Relative hardness-
– The bearing material should usually be softer than that of the journal to prevent
shaft wear but hard enough to resist adhesive and abrasive wear of its own
surface.
– Bearings are more easy to replace than shafts (that require dismantling of the
whole engine). If one bearing is worn out only that bearing needs replacement
instead of the whole shaft
 Wettability- An affinity for lubricants so that they adhere and spread to form a
protective film over the bearing surface
 Elasticity- should be elastic enough to allow the bearing to return to original shape
upon relief of stresses that may cause temporary distortion, such as misalignment
and overloading
 Availability- The material should be readily and sufficiently available, not only for
initial installation but also to facilitate replacement in the event of bearing failure
 Cost- The economic consideration is the ultimate deciding factor in selecting a
bearing material
 Bearing materials
1. Aluminium alloys
Advantages
• High load carrying capacity
• Good fatigue strength, load bearing capacity, thermal conductivity, and corrosion
resistance
• Less expensive than babbitt materials
• Most aluminium allows contain tin as an element which remains in the free state
to provide a better bearing surface
• The strongest aluminium alloy used is aluminium-silicon
• Emeddability, conformability, and compatibility are not very good and these are
improved by providing a babbitt overlay
Disadvantages
• Thermal expansion is relatively high and this restricts their usage at high
temperatures
• low compatibility
• Aluminimum alloy can be used should not exceed 150 degree.
Applications
• Mills machinery, heavy diesel engines.
 Bearing materials
2. Babbitt metal : generally bearing alloys of tin, lead base alloy,
antimony and copper are referred as Babbitt's because they satisfy most
requirements for general applications. basically
• Tin base babbits : Tin 90%, Copper 4.5%, Antimony 5%,Lead 0.5%.
Lead base babbits : Lead 84% ; Tin 6% ; Anitmony 9.5% ; Copper
0.5%.
Advantages
• Best bearing material due to low hardness
• Excellent nonscoring characteristics.
• Outstanding in their conformability and ability to embed dirt.
Disadvantages
• Low load carrying capacity.
• Relatively low compressive.
• Low fatigue strength and also strength and fatigue resistance decreases
rapidly with an increase of temperature.
Applications
 Bearing materials
3. Bronzes. The bronzes commonly used for bearing material are gun metal and
phosphor bronzes.
• The gun metal (Copper 88% ; Tin 10% ; Zinc 2%) is used for high grade bearings
subjected to high pressures (not more than 10 N/mm2) and high speeds.
• The phosphor bronze (Copper 80% ; Tin 10% ; Lead 9% ; Phosphorus 1%) is used
for bearings subjected to very high pressures (not more than 14 N/mm2 of projected
area) and speeds.
4. Cadmium-base alloys:
Advantages
• Cadmium alloys offer good fatigue resistance and excellent compatibility
characteristics
• Good conformability
Disadvantages
• Their corrosion resistance is poor and are they are expensive.
Silver:
Advantages
• The silver and silver lead bearings are mostly used in aircraft engines where the
fatigue strength is the most important consideration, used as deposited material on
steel with an overlay of lead
• The addition of lead-indium improves the embeddability, anti-weld and anti-
scoring properties.
• High resistance to fatigue
• High compressive strength .
• High load carrying capacity.
Applications
• Aircraft engines, heavy duty apllications
Cast iron:
The cast iron bearings are usually used with steel journals. Such type of bearings are
fairly successful where lubrication is adequate and the pressure is limited to 3.5 and
speed to 40 metres per minute.
Advantages
• Low cost
• Self aligning
• Low loaded transmission bearings.
Advantages
• Poor conformability
Sintered metals:
Sintered bearings are used as mostly bushings.
Advantages
• Cost is relatively low.
• Can be mass produced.
• These are submerged self lubricating bearings
• Interconnected pores cools off the bearing and oil is reabsorbed into the
bearing metal when shafts stops rotating by capillary action
 Non-metallic bearing materials
The various non-metallic bearings are made of rubber carbon-graphite,, wood
and plastics.
Rubber bearings: The soft rubber bearings are used with water or
other low viscosity lubricants, particularly where sand or other large
particles are present.
1. high degree of embeddability and conformability, the rubber bearings are
excellent for absorbing shock loads and vibrations.
2. The rubber bearings are used mainly on marine propeller shafts, hydraulic
turbines and pumps.
Applications
• Found in bearings for propeller and rudder shafts of boats and ships.
• Found where water acts as a lubricant or likely to be a contaminant.
Wood bearings: are used in many applications where 1. low cost, 2. cleanliness,
3. inattention to lubrication and anti-seizing are important.

11
Carbon graphite
1. self lubricating,
2. dimensionally stable over a wide range of operating conditions,
3. chemically inert and can operate at higher temperatures than other bearings.
5. Such type of bearings are used in food processing and other equipment where
contamination by oil or grease must be prohibited.
6. These bearings are also used in applications where the shaft speed is too low to
maintain a hydrodynamic oil film.
plastic material for bearings is Nylon and Teflon. both can be used dry i.e. as a zero
film bearing.
The Nylon is stronger, harder and more resistant to abrasive wear.
It is used for applications in which these properties are important e.g. elevator bearings,
cams in telephone dials etc.
The Teflon is rapidly replacing Nylon because of the following properties:
1. It has lower coefficient of friction, about 0.04 (dry) as compared to 0.15 for Nylon.
2. It can be used at higher temperatures up to about 315°C as compared to 120°C for
Nylon.
3. It is dimensionally stable because it does not absorb moisture, and It is practically
chemically inert.

12
Phenolic plastic bearings(synthetic polymers)
Composite materials that consist of cotton fabric, or other fillers bonded with
phenolic resin. The compatibility of the phenolics makes them easily
lubricated by various fluids.
These are stacked to obtain the desired thickness and subjected to heat and
presssure to bond the sheets firmly and later formed into required shapes.
Applications :
– They have replaced wood bearings and
metals in such applications as propeller
and rubber-shaft bearings in ships and
electrical switch-gear, rolling-mill,
and water-turbine bearings.
– In small instruments and clock motors, laminated phenolics serve as
structural members as well as a bearing material. They have excellent
strength and shock resistance coupled with resistance to water, acid,
and alkali solutions.
-Used in aircraft landing gears and in several applications where water is
a lubricant, such as in rolling mills where water is used for cooling and
to lubricate. Also used in rudder bearings and centrifugal pumps .
13
Advantages and Disadvantages of Rolling Contact Bearings Over Sliding Contact
Bearings
Advantages
1. Low starting and running friction except at very high speeds.
2. Ability to withstand momentary shock loads.
3. Accuracy of shaft alignment.
4. Low cost of maintenance, as no lubrication is required while in service.
5. Small overall dimensions.
. Reliability of service.
7. Easy to mount and erect.
8. Cleanliness.
Disadvantages
1. More noisy at very high speeds.
2. 2. Low resistance to shock loading.
3. 3. More initial cost.
4. 4. Design of bearing housing complicated
 Surface engineering
 Surface engineering refers to a wide range of technologies that aim to
design and modify the surface properties of components.

 These are surface coatings and surface modification.

 Surface coating processes involve depositing a layer of molten, semi-molten or
chemical material onto a substrate. One of the main functions of surface coating
is to modify and reinforce the surface functions instead of reforming the
composition of the bulk material.
 Surface modification: processes are applicable to control friction,
improve surface wear and corrosion resistance, and change the physical or
mechanical properties of the component
 Application of Surface Engineering
 •Surface engineering techniques are being used in the
 automotive, aerospace, missile,
 power, electronic, biomedical,
 textile, petroleum, petrochemical,
 chemical, steel, power, cement, machine tools and
 construction industries including road surfacing. •
 Almost all types of materials, including metals, ceramics, polymers, and
composites can be coated on similar or dissimilar materials. It is also
possible to form coatings of newer materials (e.g., met glass. beta-C3N4),
graded deposits, multi-component deposits etc.
 Sports Industry Applications -Surface engineering of titanium oxide for
motor sports has proved to be an effective modification to optimise the
properties of engine parts, thus enhancing the performance of racing cars.
ADVANTAGES OF SURFACE ENGINEERING:
1. Materials with lower properties, usually cheaper can be treated.
2. Retaining same strength characteristic and usually better
tribological, decorative and numerous other properties
3. Improvement of reliability of work of tools, machine components
and appliances and reduction of failures.
4. Reduction by 15 to 35% of losses due to corrosion.
5. Reduction of frequency of replacing used tools and machine parts,
as well as frequency of maintenance overhauls.
6. low rate of energy consumption by methods used in surface
engineering, besides low amounts of waste, effluent, smoke, dust
and industrial gases. Minimization of environmental pollution
 CLASSIFICATION OF SURFACE ENGINEERING
(I) Changing the Surface Metallurgy: None of these process changes the
surface chemistry, but they improve properties like wear and fatigue by
changing surface metallurgy.
a) Localized surface hardening (flame, induction, laser, and electron-beam
hardening, stain hardening)
b) Laser beam melting
c) Shot peening:
(II) Changing the Surface Chemistry: Surface modification processes have
advantage over coating primarily because they
(1) usually impart internal compressive stresses in near surface region and
(2) Will not delaminate off the substrate.
(a) Thermo chemical diffusion heat treatment (b) Surface modification by ion
implantation
(III) Adding a Surface Layer or Coating :
This involves an intentional buildup or addition of new layer on metal substrate
i.e. application of coating or lining. A wide range of processes are used to deposit
metal/ceramic and Organic (paints or plastic and rubber coating).
• Electroplating(Electrochemical deposition,
• Electroforming, Electroless plating )
• Cladding (thick metal coating)
(IV) Methods Of Depositing Ceramic Coatings:
The deposition of ceramics, polymers phases onto conventional metallic
materials results in good combination of bulk toughness and load support
with desirable surface characteristics and also making forming of complex
shapes easier
1.Thermal Spraying
2. Sol Gel technique
3. Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique (CVD)
4. Physical Vapor Deposition Technique (PVD)
 Transformation hardening
• Hardening (metallurgy), the strengthening of metal alloys by
heat treatment
• Heating above recrystallization temperature for hypereutectoid
steel by 500degree.
• Socking time for homogeneous austenization
• Cooling hot steel component at rate just exceeding the critical
cooling rate
• Tempering to martensite structure.
 Flame hardening
• Steel specimen with oxyacetylene flame to austenite range while
quenching changes austenite to martensite.
• Order of 850 degree heated surface depth becomes hard and core remains
with soft and tough with ferrite and pearlite
• Heat supplied per unit area per unit time and faster is moved lesser the
depth of hardening.
• Depth up to 3mm
 Induction hardening
 selective hardening process to produce hard and wear resistance
surface with soft core in steel components.
 Applicable to 0.4 and 0.5%corbon content steel and alloys
 A frequency alternating current induces eddy current in the surface of steel.
 Temperature produced is about 750-800 degree and depth 0.8mm is achieved
in 1 to 5 sec.
 Treatment is determined by time of flow, power density and frequency of
alternating current. Ex : cam shafts, crank shafts, gears
 Laser hardening
• Laser hardening treatment is widely used to harden localized areas of steel
and cast iron machine components.
• This process is sometimes referred to as laser transformation hardening to
differentiate it from laser surface melting phenomena.
• There is no chemistry change produced by laser transformation hardening,
and the process, like induction and flame hardening.
• As laser beams are of high intensity….. a lens is used to reduce the intensity by
producing a defocused spot of size ranging from 0.5 to 25 mm. proper control of
energy input is necessary to avoid melting.
• Heated and cooled very rapidly, by self-quenching (bulk material acts as a heat
sink) resulting in very fine Martensitic microstructures, even in steels with
relatively High hardness and good wear resistance with less distortion result from
this process
Laser hardening
 Electron Beam (EB) hardening
• Electron beam hardening process is a short surface hardening procedure
for martensitically, hardenable ferrous materials.
• The electrons of the beam hit the component surface and penetrate into
the metal surface is shown in Figure.
• the electrons lose their energy rapidly due bombardment in between
atoms of materail. The majority of the energy lost by the electrons is
transformed into heat in the absorption volume. Approximately 75% .
• To produce an electron beam, a high vacuum of 10-5 torr is needed in the
region where the electrons are emitted and accelerated.
• Like laser beam hardening, the EB process eliminates the need for
quenchants but requires a sufficient work piece mass to permit self
quenching. Normally, case depth upto 0.1 to 1.5mm (0.004 to 0.006 in.)
• A minicomputer is used to control voltage, current, beam time and focus
• Depending on the material selected, the work-piece thickness required
should be at least 5 to 10 times the austenizing depth.
Electron Beam (EB) hardening
 Work hardening
• Work hardening strengthening the material by plastic deformation
• Work hardening is achieved by plastic deformation at the surface
ferrous and non ferrous metals. metal working and shoot peening
can do work hardening.
• Shot peening the surface of components is plastically deformed by
the impingement of stream of shoots directed at the surface at high
velocity under toughness
• Shot peening is a surface enhancement process which produces
beneficial compressive residual stresses on metallic surfaces.
• A residual stress is developed due to interaction of dislocations and
reduced grain size and yield strength along with flow stress get
increased. This improves fatigue strength and relieves tensile
stresses that contribute to stress-corrosion cracking .
Work hardening
 Thermo chemical process
Carburizing (diffusion process):
• Carburizing is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel is heated in
the presence of carbon material (in the range of 900 to 950 °C (1,650 to
1,740 °F).
• Depending on the amount of time and temperature, the affected area can
vary in carbon content. Longer carburizing times and higher
temperatures lead to greater carbon diffusion into the part as well as
increased depth of carbon diffusion.
• When the iron or steel is cooled rapidly by quenching, the higher carbon
content on the outer surface becomes hard via the transformation from
austenite to martensite, while the core remains soft and tough as a ferritic
and/or pearlite microstructure.
• Generally it is used for low-carbon (0.1 to .2%) workpiece to increase
their toughness and ductility; and it produces case hardness depths of up
to 0.25 inches (6.4 mm).
• Carburizing can be done by Pack carburizing, Liquid carburizing, Gas
carburizing and vacuum carburizing.
Thermo chemical process
 Thermo chemical process
Nitriding (diffusion process):
• Nitriding involves diffusion of nitrogen in to the surface of certain types
of steels containing aluminum, chromium molybdenum tungsten and
vanadium. The process produces a hard case without quenching
(Water,oil, air quench) or any further heat treatment carried out 50-90
hours.
• In this process, the specimen is heated in an atmosphere of ammonia gas,
the temperature being in the order of 500-580degree. At the this
temperature ammonia dissociates into nitrogen and hydrogen as given in
the below
• Nitrogen diffuses in to the steel specimen to form nitrides to give
extreme hardness to surface and hydrogen is exhausted.
• Depth of nitrogen diffusion depends on temperature and time allowed for
reaction range of 0.2 to 0.4 mm and retained hardness up to 500degrees.
• nitrogen results in formation of a brittle layer of iron nitride on surface
to be removed by tapping or by using chemical solution before put in to
use.
 Thermo chemical process
Cyaniding:
• Cyaniding is a case hardening process that is fast and efficient; it is mainly
used on low carbon steels. The part is heated to 871-954 °C (1600- 1750
°F) in a bath of sodium cyanide and then is quenched 10 to 180 minutes, in
water or oil, and rinsed to remove any residual cyanide.

• A process in which an iron-base alloy is heated in contact with a cyanide salt so

that the surface absorbs carbon and nitrogen. Cyaniding is followed by quenching
and tempering to produce a case with a desired combination of hardness and
toughness
• can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes compared to several hours so the
parts have less opportunity to become distorted
• This process produces a thin, hard shell (between 0.254 - 0.762 mm)
• It is typically used on small parts such as bolts, nuts, screws and small
gears. The major drawback of cyaniding is that cyanide salts are poisonous.
 Thermo chemical process
Carbonitriding (diffusion process): :
• Carbo-nitriding is similar to cyaniding except a gaseous atmosphere of
ammonia and a hydrocarbon is used instead of sodium cyanide.
• Carbon-nitrogen are simultaneously introduced into the surface of steel at
a temperature of 800 and 870 degree and then quenched.
• It is a modified form of carburizing as diffused amount of carbon is
greater than that of nitrogen. It can be applied to any of the steel suitable
for carburizing.
Ferritic Nitro Carburizing (diffusion process): :
• Nitrocarburizing is a variation of the nitriding process. It is a
thermochemical diffusion process where nitrogen, carbon, and to a very
small degree, oxygen atoms diffuse into the surface of the steel part,
forming a compound layer at the surface, and a diffusion layer.
• Carbon-nitrogen are simultaneously introduced into the surface of steel in
the ferritic condition. But amount of diffused nitrogen is very high
compare to that of carbon.
 Boronizing (diffusion process):
• In the case of pack process, the components are packed in heat resistant
boxes with mixtures of granules or paste of boron carbide or other boron
compounds with addition of activators and diluents at 900-1100°C.
• Boron diffuses inwards and iron borides (FeB and Fe2B) layers are formed.
On the outer surface, FeB phase forms, While in the interior, Fe 2B phase is
formed. FeB phase is more brittle and is not desirable.
• Higher temperatures, longer treatment times and high alloy steels favour the
formation of FeB phase. The boride layers are very hard. The hardness of
boride layers on steel ranges between 1500 and 2100 VHN.
• Boride layer depths range from 0.012 to 0.127 mm, depending on material
and application. The treatment time required for a case depth of 0.15 mm is
6hours at about 900°C.
• Thick layers (up to 0.127 mm) – for abrasive wear
• Thin layer (up to 0.025 mm) – for adhesive wear and friction reduction
 Ion Implantation (Surface modification)
• Modern Ion implantation is the physical and/or chemical modification
of the surface material without raising substrate temperature by
bombarding the material with a beam of very high energy ions.
• it is a potential enhancement method for plating processes, such as
chrome plating. High-energy ions, typically 10–200 keV in energy, are
produced in an accelerator and directed as a beam onto the surface of
the substrate.
• It has mainly three parts
• Ion source:
• Accelerator:
• Target chamber
• The depth of implantation, which is proportional to the ion energy,
frequency, can be selected to meet a particular application.
ADVANTAGES OF ION IMPLANTATION
 Increases surface hardness of parts, offering excellent resistance to adhesive
wear
 Reduces friction coefficient, improves the anti-seizure property of parts
 Increases fatigue threshold without increasing temperature which preserves the
material’s mechanical properties
 No geometric deformation of parts

Applications of Ion Implantation

• plastics, polymers & elastomers (pe, pp, hnbr, etc.)
– Pharmaceutical industry: seals, washers, etc.
– Medical industry: syringes, caps, membranes, silicone implants, etc.
– Car parts: V seals, lipped seals, O-ring seals, connectors, etc.
• Metal Parts (titanium, aluminium, precious metals, etc.)
– Precision components and micro-mechanisms, high tech parts for
the aeronautical and defence industries.
– Medical industry: prostheses, etc.
– Luxury products: watch component treatments, etc.
 Electrochemical
• Electrochemical deposition: electroplating,
• In engineering, electroplating is primarily used for enhancing surface
performance and to repair worn parts .ex: abrasion and wear
resistance, corrosion protection.
• where ions to be plated must be periodically putted into the bath.
• ex: chromium plating : It is widely applied in industrial products,
such as piston rings, shock absorbers, struts, brake pistons, engine
valve stems,
Electroless plating
• the plating is achieved by a purely chemical reaction in the solution
that causes the metal to be deposited. For non-conducting parts
• the reduction of Nickel chloride in solution by Sodium
hypophosphite, which causes Ni metal to be deposited on the part.
• The deposited metal is not in crystalline form, so this process is
followed by heat-treatment and quenching.
Electroforming
A variation of electroplating, electroforming is actually a metal
fabrication process. Metal is electrodeposited on a mandrel, which is
then removed.
the coating itself becomes the product. Simple and complex shapes can
be produced by electroforming, with wall thickness as small as
0.025mm.
 Thermal spray
• Thermal spraying is one of the most versatile techniques available for the
application of protective coatings. Metals, polymers and ceramics are the
most widely used coating materials.
• Flame spraying is the simplest method, which has two forms of
consumables available for use – wire, powder and plasma.
• The principle of operation of the Super jet torch is that oxygen and acetylene
are directed separately by needle valves for ensuring precise flame
adjustment.
• The oxygen flows through an injector which then draws the powder into the
system by aspiration. At the same time, the acetylene gas is carried
separately to the mixer assembly.
• At this point both gases are mixed carrying the powder through the system
until it reaches the spray tip and into the flame.
• The various applications of the super jet process include joining and
dressing up of metallic components, surfacing or overlaying operations,
mould reclamation or finish machining errors of tool and die work.
 Applications
• Crankshaft reconditioning or conditioning
• Corrosion protection
• Fouling protection
• Altering thermal conductivity or electrical conductivity
• Wear control: either hardfacing (wear-resistant) or abradable coating
• Repairing damaged surfaces
• Temperature/oxidation protection (thermal barrier coatings)
• Medical implants
 Chemical vapor deposition technique
• Chemical vapor deposition technique is to deposit a solid layer on a
heated surface via a chemical reaction from the vapor or gas phase.
• i. The production of a volatile carrier compound, e.g. nickel
carbonyl;( carbon and silicon carbides, nitrides, and oxides)
• ii. The transport of the gas, without decomposition, to the
deposition site;
• iii. The chemical reaction necessary to produce the coating on the
substrate
• According to the operating pressure and environment, CVD can be
classified as atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD), low-pressure
CVD (LPCVD) and plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD).
• wear, erosion, and corrosion resistance applications, such as metal
forming, molding tools, pump and valve parts, machine elements
(e.g., gears, bearings and blades),
 Chemical vapor deposition technique
1. Transport of reacting to the substrate surface Metal Carbonyls - Ni(CO) 4, etc
2. Absorption of species on the substrate surface
3. Heterogeneous surface reaction catalyzed by the substrate surface.
4. Desorption of gaseous reaction byproducts
5. Transportation of reaction by-products away from the substrate
CVD process has been extended to wear, erosion, and corrosion resistance
applications, such as metal forming, molding tools, pump and valve parts, machine
elements (e.g., gears, bearings and blades), etc. It is also employed in
microelectronics, optical films, and high-temperature superconductors.
 Physical vapor deposition technique
PVD is a process by which a thin film of material is deposited on a
substrate according to following steps:
1) The material to be deposited is converted into vapour by physical
means
2) The vapor is transported across a region of low pressure from its
source to the substrate
3) Vapor undergoes condensation on the substrate to form the thin
film.
PVD technique can be mainly divided into three groups:
• Vacuum evaporation PVD,
• sputtering PVD
• ion plating
1. Deposition occur by condensation. 1. Deposition occur by chemical
reaction.

2. The material that is introduced onto the 2. Introduced in a gaseous form

substrate is introduced in solid form

3. Atoms are moving and depositing on the

3. The gaseous molecules will react
substrate
with the substrate.

4. PVD coating is deposited at a relatively low 4. CVD uses high temperatures in

temperature (around 250°C~450°C) the range of 450° C to 1050° C
5. CVD is mainly used for
5. PVD is suitable for coating tools that are
depositing compound protective
used in applications that demand a tough coatings.
cutting edge.
6. Low capital cost
6. High capital cost
7. Coating thickness 3-5 micrometer
7. Coating thickness up to 20micrometer
• Galvanizing