College of Education and Behavioral

Sciences
Department of Psychology

Course name: General Psychology

(Psyc 1011)
Why you need to study psychology?

 To get in touch with essential

terminologies, theories, themes
& concepts of psychology.
 To identify situations where
psychology’s principles &
interventions can be used.
Misconceptions about psychology &
psychologists

1. Anybody who has studied

psychology can read people’s
personality.
2. Psychologists can predict fate or
destiny.
3. Psychologists are doctors.
4. Psychologists give medicines
Defining the Field of Psychology

1. Have you ever read any

material or heard anything
related to psychology?
2. If so, what does psychology
mean to you?
 I. Classic definition

 The term 'psychology' was derived from

two Greek words:
 Psyche= Mind, Soul or Spirit
 Logos= Study or Discourse
 Hence, the literal meaning of psychology
was “the study of the soul or spirit’.
 The nature of soul or spirit could not be
defined objectively.
 Therefore, the meaning of psychology in
terms of soul or spirit was rejected.
 II. Contemporary definition

 Psychology is “the scientific &

systematic study of human behavior
and underlying mental processes”.
 Psychology can be represented by the
following Greek letter (psi).
 Aspects of the definition

1. Science: what do you think is science?

 Science is a body of systematized
knowledge.
 Systematic and controlled extension
of common sense
 Rely on information that is verifiable
through experience.
 That is, it must be possible for
different people in different places and
at different times using the same
method to obtain comparable results.
2. Behavior
 Everything we do that can be
directly observed.
For example;
 Two people kissing
 baby crying
3. Mental processes
 Thoughts, feelings & motives
that each of us experience
privately, but which can’t be
observed directly.
 Goals of Psychology

1. Description: What is happening?

 Involves observing a behavior &
noticing everything about it.
 What is happening at a
moment?
 Where & under what
circumstance it happens?
2. Explanation: Why is it happening?
 knowing what caused the
behavior.
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3. Prediction:
 Once we know what happens, and
why it happens, we can speculate
what will happen in the future.
4. Control:
 By applying various techniques of
behavior modification, psychologists
try to control behavior.
Historical development of psychology

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 Psychology is a relatively new field
in the realm of the sciences.
 It emerged as a separate
discipline some 140 years ago.
 Psychology broke away from
I. Philosophy &
II.Physiology
It was in 1879 that Wilhelm Wundt
opened the first psychological

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laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
 This event heralded the beginning
of psychology as a scientific
discipline.

Wilhelm Von Wundt (1832-1920)

considered by many as the ―father
of psychology.
 Schools of Psychology

 Influential psychologists of the time

held quite different views on “subject
matter” for psychology.
A. Should psychology be the study
of the mind?
B. Should it study behavior?
C. Should both mind & behavior be
included?

As a result, different schools of

thought formed, having their own
assumptions and perspectives.
I. Early schools of psychology

Schools, in this context are groups of

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scholars who held common beliefs about
 The subject matter of the discipline
 The methods of study to be used.

These schools of psychology include:

1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
3. Behaviorism
4. Gestalt psychology
5. Psychoanalysis
 1. Structuralism

Founders;
A. Wilhelm Wundt
B. Edward Titchener

Wilhelm Wundt Edward Titchener

 Major tenets of structuralism

 Psychology should concern itself with

the units & elements, which make up
the mind.
 Structuralists devised a technique
known as “introspection”.
 Structuralism declined in the early
1920s.
 2. Functionalism

Founder; William James

 Major tenets of Functionalism

 Psychology should focus on how the

mind allows people to function in the
real world.
 Concerned with the purposes,
functions, of the mental processes.
 How people work, play, and
adapt to their surroundings,
 3. Gestalt psychology

Founders;

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1. Max Wertheimer
2. Kurt Koffka
3. Wolfgang Kohler

Max Wertheimer Kurt Koffka Wolfgang Kohler

Major tenets of Gestalt Psychology

 Oppose the atomist approach of the

structuralists
 People perceive the world in wholes.
 The whole is greater than the sum
of its parts.
 D. Behaviorism

Founders;
1. John B. Watson

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2. Edward Thorndike
3. B.F. Skinner

John B. Watson Edward Thorndike B.F. Skinner

 Major tenets of Behaviorism

 Scientific psychology should study

only observable behavior”
 Psychology should altogether abandon
the study of mental processes
 Psychology should focus on the role of
experience in shaping behavior.
5. Psychoanalysis

Founder; Sigmund Freud

 Major tenets of Psychoanalysis

 Our unconscious urges and thoughts

(hidden wishes & passions, guilty
secrets) make themselves known in
A. Dreams,
B. Slips of the tongue,
C. Jokes
 Our early childhood experience
determine our personality as an adult.
 There is always a conflict among the
three personality structures (Id, Ego &
Super ego)
How do these schools of psychology differ?

Basically they differ in terms of

three issues:
1. In their object of study: i.e. what
they studied (conscious mind,
unconscious mind & overt behavior).
2. In their goal: analyze the components
of the mind or observing the effect
of the environment on behavior.
3. In their method: Introspection,
observation, clinical case studies.
 In conclusion

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 The discourse made by the
structural, gestalt & functional
schools of psychology have vanished
 Behaviorism & psychoanalysis are
still, in modified forms.
Modern schools of psychology

1.Psychodynamic perspective
2.Behavioral perspective
3.The Humanistic Perspective
4.The Physiological Perspective
5.The Cognitive Perspective
6.The Socio-Cultural Perspective
 1. Psychodynamic perspective

Expanded by Post Freudians;

A. Carl Jung
B. Adler
C. Anna Freud,

This perspective focuses largely on

 The unconscious mind and its influence
over conscious behavior.
 The role of our early childhood
experience on our current behavior
 The role of interpersonal conflict in
determining human behavior.
 2. Behavioral perspective

 Focus on the influence of the

environment.
 Argue that learning and experience
make the kind of person you become.

Applications of behavioral perspective

A. Curbing aggression
B. Resolving sexual problems
C. Ending drug addiction
D. Phobia
 3. Humanistic Perspective

Founders;
1. Carl Rogers
2. Abraham Maslow

Major tenets
 People naturally strive to grow & develop,
if they are given opportunity.
 Human beings are unique and have
freedom to choose their own destiny.
 Hence, the aim of psychology should
be to help them maximize their
potential for psychological growth.
4. The Physiological Perspective

 Argue that our behavior, even what we

think and feel, is assumed to be linked
to our physiological make up.
 Hence, understanding of the brain
and the nervous system is central
in psychological functioning

Labels attached to these researchers are;

A. Biopsychologist
B. Neuropsychologist
C. Psychobiologist
 5. The Cognitive Perspective

Major tenets
 Our ways of thinking about the world
influence our behavior.
 People‘s thoughts & explanations affect
their actions, feelings & choices.
 The events occurring within a
person must be studied if behavior
is to be fully understood.
6.The Socio-Cultural Perspective

Major tenets
 Focuses on how the social and cultural
environment outside the person
influences our behavior.
 We are like fish that are unaware
that they live in water; so obvious is
water in their lives.
 These psychologists study the water
(social & cultural environment) that
people ―swim in everyday.
 In summary

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Not all psychologists feel that they
must wear allegiance to one
approach, rather they are eclectic.
 Activity 1

1. How many of the sub-fields of

psychology do you know?
2. Where do you think
psychologists are employed to
work after graduation?
 Sub-fields of Psychology

1. Bio-psychology/Neuropsychology:
 Study the biological foundations of behavior.
2. Developmental Psychology:
 Study physical, mental & social development
of humans from conception to death.
3. Personality Psychology:
 Study differences in behavior among
individuals.
A. Are our personalities determined more
by nature or by nurture?
B. To what extent do people behave
consistently?
4. Educational Psychology:
 Apply psychological principles & theories to
improve educational process including;
 Curriculum
 Teaching
 Administration of academic programs.
5. School psychology:
 Set up programs to improve student
academic performance & school behavior
 Provide counseling to students who are
having social or academic problems.
 Usually, they work in elementary schools &
high schools.
6. Clinical Psychology:
 Deal with severe psychological
disorders, including;
A. Causes of severe abnormal behavior.
B. Diagnosis & treatment of disorders.
7. Counseling Psychology:
 Deal with less severe problems than
those treated by clinical
psychologists. This includes
A. Educational,
B. Social,
C. Marital
D. Career adjustment problems
8. Social Psychology:
 Study the way we affect and are influenced
by other people.
9. Cross-cultural Psychology
 Examines the role of culture in understanding
behavior, thought & emotion.
 Compares the nature of psychological
processes in different cultures.
10. Industrial/Organizational psychology
 Work to increase productivity in industries &
GOs & NGOs by;
A. Improving working conditions & methods
for hiring
B. Providing training on stress management
& burnout.
10. Forensic psychology:
 Work in the legal system.
 Study validity of eyewitness
testimony
 Devise ways to select jurors.
 Train police officers
11. Health psychology:
 Studies the relationship between
psychological variables well-being of a
person.
Research Methods in Psychology

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Research plays an extremely
important role in psychology.
 Types of Research Methods

In psychology there are three major

types of research methods:

1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Experimental
1. Descriptive Research Method

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In descriptive research
 The researcher simply records
what he or she has systematically
observed.
 It includes
A. Naturalistic observation
B. Case study
C. Survey
 A. Naturalistic Observation

 This is observing behavior in their

natural environment.
 Often involves counting behaviors, such
as number of aggressive acts or smiles.
 Psychologists conduct naturalistic
observations at;
A. Football games
B. Day-care centers
C. College dormitories
D. Shopping malls
E. Restaurants etc.
 Limitation: people who know they are
being watched may behave artificially.
 B. Case Study

 This is an in-depth look at a single

individual/entity, typically over an
extended period of time.
 It is used mainly by clinical
psychologists

Limitations
 Generalization is impossible, as
usually only few cases are involved
 Time consuming.
 More prone to researcher bias.
 C. Survey

 Helps to gather large amounts of data

in a relatively short period of time.
 Questionnaires & interviews are most
frequently used in survey research.

Limitations
 Lacks depth or detailed information.
 Respondents may distort their
responses.
 Misunderstanding of the question,
 Lack of control over extraneous
variables.
 2. Correlational Studies

 Correlation is a research method which

measures the relationship between two
or more variables.
 However, based on results from
correlational research, we can’t make
any assumptions of cause and effect.

Example; a researcher might be curious

to know whether or not cigarette
smoking is connected to life expectancy.
 A correlation coefficient can range
from -1 to +1
(
A. (−1) indicates a very strong
inverse relationship
B. (+1) indicates a very strong
positive relationship.
C. (0) indicates no relationship
between the two variables.
3. Experimental Research Methods

Experimentation involves manipulation of one

or more IVs & then the measurement of the
effect of the treatment on one or more DV.

Example; a researcher might be curious

to know the impact of music on stress:
 Variables in ER

I. Independent Variable (IV):

 The variable which is manipulated by
an experimenter to see its effect
on DV.
 Music is an IV in the above example
II.Dependent Variable (DV):
 The variable which changes as a
consequence of changes in the IV.
 Stress is DV in the above example
Types of groups in experimental research

1. Experimental group:
 A group comprising participants who
receive the experimental treatment
in an experiment.
2. Control group:
 A group in an experiment comprising
participants who don’t receive the
treatment.
 It serves as a baseline against which
the effects of the manipulated
condition can be compared.
 Activity 2

Identify the IV & DV of the following

research topics

1. The effect of reading technique on

academic performance.
2. Did a violent TV program increase
aggression in young children?
3. Are people in good mood more willing
to help others more than those in
bad mood?
 Steps of Scientific Research

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1. Defining the Problem
 Noticing something attention
catching in the surrounding.
 Example-watching horror movies &
aggressive behavior in children
2. Formulating the Hypothesis
 Example: children who watch
violent cartoons will become more
aggressive than those who watch
non-violent cartoons‖.
3. Testing the Hypothesis
 Example: Collecting data from children

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who watch aggressive videos & from
those who don’t watch aggressive
videos & make comparisons.
4. Drawing Conclusions
 An attempt to make generalizations
or draw implications
5. Reporting Results
 This allows others to predict & modify
behavior based on the findings.
 CHAPTER TWO
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

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• The meanings of sensation and perception
- Sensation and perception are the first important
dimensions of human life.
- they are starting points for all of your other
psychological processes.
- They supply the data we use for learning and
remembering, thinking and problem solving,
communicating with others, and experiencing
emotions and for being aware of yourself.
• sensation

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- is the process whereby stimulation of
receptor cells in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth,
and surface of the skin sends nerve impulses
to the brain.
- are closely tied to what is happening in the
sensory systems themselves.
- E.g. Color, brightness, the pitch of tone or a
bitter taste
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 Perception is the process that organizes
sensations into meaningful patterns.
 It is the process whereby the brain interprets
sensations, giving them order and meaning.
 Thus, hearing sounds and seeing colors is
largely a sensory process, but forming a
melody and detecting patterns and shapes is
largely a perceptual process.
 the difference between sensation
and perception

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 for example, the black marks and letters in this
page.
 Visual sensation lets you detect the black marks.
 Visual
perception lets you organize the black
marks into letters and works.
 The sensory laws:
 Sensory thresholds

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 sensory adaption

Sensory thresholds: is the minimum point

of intensity a sound can be detected.
There are two laws of sensory threshold:
1. The law of absolute threshold and
2. the law of difference threshold.
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 The law of absolute threshold: The
minimum
amount of stimulation a person can
detect
 Limen,
 for example, a cup of coffee would require a
certain amount of sugar before you could detect a
sweet taste.
 the minimum level of stimulation that can be
 The difference threshold
 Is

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changes in the intensity of a stimulus.
 Is the minimum amount of change that can be
detected.
 For example, a cup of coffee would require a
certain amount of additional sugar before you
could detect an increase in its sweetness.
 the minimum change in stimulation that can be
detected
 This difference in threshold is called the just
noticeable difference (jnd).
Sensory Adaptation

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Is tendency of our sensory receptors
to have decreasing responsiveness to
unchanging stimulus
lets you detect potentially important
change in your environment while
ignoring unchanging aspects of it.
Perception
is a meaning making process

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the major characteristics of the perceptual
process:
1. selectivity of perception,
2. from perception,
3. depth perception,
4. perceptual constancy, and
5. perceptual illusion.
 Selectivity of perception: Attention
 the term given to the perceptual process that selects

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certain inputs for inclusion in your conscious
experience, or awareness, at any given time, ignoring
others.
 What does this selectivity of perception imply?
 The selectivity of perception implies that, among
other things, that our field of experience is divided
into what is known as ―Focus‖ and ―Margin.‖
 Events or stimuli that you perceive clearly are the
focus of your experience and other items or stimuli
that you perceive dimly or vaguely are in the margin
of your attention.
internalpsychological states of the

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observer that affect as to which stimulus
on pays attention to or ignore
Psychologists have identified two
important psychological factors:
1. Set or expectancy and
2. motives or needs.
 From perception
 meaningful shapes or patterns or ideas that are

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made perhaps out of meaningless and discrete
or pieces and bites of sensations
 To perceive forms (meaningful shapes or
patterns), you need to distinguish a figure (an
object) from its ground (or its surrounding).
 Figure-Ground Perception
 isthe perception of objects and forms of
everyday experience as standing out from a
background.
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 Factors that determine your attention equally
determine what should become the figure and what
should become the ground.
 what helps you in general to separate the figure
from the general around in your visual
perception?
 This will take you to the second feature of form
perception called contours.
 Contours in Form Perception

 Contours are formed whenever a marked

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difference occurs in the brightness or color of the
background.
contours give shape to the objects in our
visual world because they mark one object
off from another or they mark an object off
from the general ground.
When contours are disrupted visually, as in
camouflage, objects are difficult to
distinguish from the background.
 Organization in form Perception
 When several objects are present in the visual field,

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we tend to perceive them as organized into patterns
or groupings.
 The Gestalt psychologists studied such organization
intensively in the early part of this century.
 Theyemphasized that organized perceptual
experience has properties, which cannot be
predicated from a simple analysis of the
components.
 Wesee objects as objects only because grouping
processes operate in perception.
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What are some of the laws of
perceptual organization ?
2. Proximity:
 Items which are close together in space
or time tend to be perceived as units.

Things that are relatively close to one

another tend to be grouped together.
3. Similarity
 Objects of similar shape, intensity, or
color are grouped together.

Here, items that look similar will be

seen as parts of the same form.
4. Closure
 We tend to perceive a complete object
even though parts of it is missing.

We tend to fill out incomplete

details to form “good figures”
Example: read the following passage OUTLOUD:

Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Hramya

Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht
oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny
iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat
ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can
be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it
wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the
huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by
istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.

So much for correct spelling, right?

5. Continuation
 lines, patterns or objects tend to be
seen as continuing in one direction
even if interrupted by another object.
 II. Depth perception

How do we recover a 3-D world

from a 2-D retinal image?
 II. Depth perception
Depth perception: the ability to
see three dimensional space and
to accurately judge distances. (is
the ability to judge the distance
of the objects.

 The retinal image is only two-

dimensional; height and width.
 From the two-dimensional images,
we somehow are able to see
three dimensional objects.
Images of the Eyes and Retina
 Depth Cues:

Depth Cues: Features that supply

information about distance and space.

We determine distance using two

different cues:
A. Monocular cues
B. Binocular cues
 A. Monocular cues

Monocular cues: those cues which

can be seen using only one eye.
 Types of monocular cues

1. Relative Size: larger images are perceived

as closer to us, especially if the two
images are of the same object.

age
im the .
h e n ge
t ha a
of y t im
op wa h e
t a t
e f
th ther m o
in ar to
its e f bot
b b b e
ra to th
h e ar at
T pe ts
ap bbi
ra
 2. Interposition

Due to overlap, those objects covering part

of another object is perceived as closer.
 3. Linear Perspective

Two parallel lines appear to converge at

the horizon, as the further away they get.
 4. Texture Gradient

Objects seen at greater distances appear to be

smoother and less textured.
the nearer an object, the more details we can make out and the
farther an object, the more details we can make out, and the
farther an object, the fewer details we can make out.
 5. Elevation

The higher on the horizontal plane an object is,

the farther away it appears.
Objects that are higher in your visual field seem to be
farther away. If you paint a picture, you create depth
by placing more distant objects higher on the Canvas.
 Without the
monocular cues,
pictures seem
“flat.”
 B. Binocular cues

Binocular cues: those cues in which both

eyes are needed to perceive depth.
 Types of binocular views

A. Retinal disparity: The differences between

the two retinal images of the same scene as
seen by the left eye and right eye.
Examples of retinal disparity

The gap in the left image differs

from the gap in the right image.
 2. Convergence

As things get closer, your eyes get

more crossed or converged.
 Perceptual constancies
Perceptual constancy: our tendency to
perceive objects as keeping their size, shape
& color even though the image that strikes
our retina changes from moment to moment.
- The image of a given object focused on your
retina may vary in size, shape, and brightness.
- Yet you will continue to perceive the object as
stable in size, shape, and brightness because of
perceptual constancy.
There are typically three constancies;
1. Size constancy
2. Shape constancy
3. Brightness constancy
A. Size constancy:
 Our ability to recognize that an object
remains constant in size regardless of
its distance to the observer.

No matter how far away the balloon

is from you, you know how large it is.
2. Shape constancy;
 Our ability to recognize a shape
regardless of the angle from
which you view it.

Regardless of the angle, we still

perceive all the doors as rectangles.
3. Brightness constancy:
 Our ability to recognize that color
remains the same regardless of how it
looks under different levels of light.
Perceptual Illusion: Visual Illusion

Perceptual illusion: refers an inappropriate

interpretation of the physical reality.

Common types of illusions include;

1.Visual Illusion: occurs when two objects

produce almost the same retinal image
but are perceived as different images.
A. Ponzo illusion
B. Horizontal-vertical illusion
C. Muller-Lyer illusion
D. Moon illusion
 Chapter Three
Learning & Theories of Learning
 Objectives

At the end of this unit, you are

expected to:
 Explain the general features of
learning.
 Use the behaviorist & cognitive
theories to explain how learning occur
 Design techniques to reinforce
behavior & improve memory.
 The Nature of Learning

 Learning shapes our thought &

language, our motivations & emotions,
our personalities & attitudes.
 Quite literally we learn all our lives.
 Activity 1

1. What is learning to you?

2. What makes it different from
maturation & development?
 The Meaning of learning

For a layperson;
 Learning is knowledge or skill gained
through schooling or study that is
usually perceived as a positive change.

With reference to Psychology;

 Learning: refers to any relatively
permanent change in behavior
(positive & negative) occurring as a
result of experience or practice.
Attributes/characteristics of learning

 Learning is marked by a change

 The change is relatively permanent
 Doesn’t include change due to
a) Illness
b) Fatigue
c) Intoxication
d) Hormones & neurotransmitters.
 Principles of learning

 Individuals learn best when they are

physically, mentally & emotionally ready.
 Individuals learn best when they have
meaningful practice and exercise.
 Learning is strengthened when accompanied
by a pleasant feeling.
 Individuals learn more from the real thing
than from a substitute.
 Things freely learned are best learned
Factors Influencing Learning

A. Motivation
B. Maturation
C. Physical health condition
D. Psychological wellbeing
E. Learning environments
F. Length of the working period
How Do We Learn?
 Theories of Learning

 There are three theories of learning that

explain how new behavior is learned.

1. Behavioral Learning Theory

2. Social Learning Theory
3. Cognitive Learning Theory
I. Behaviorism: Learning by Association

Major arguments
 Learning occurs as a result of
stimulus-response associations.
 Experience plays significant role in
governing behavior.

 There are two theories under Behaviorism

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
1. Classical Conditioning
Founder: Ivan Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)

 Born in Sep 26,1849

 Awarded a Degree in
natural sciences in 1875.
 Won the Nobel price in
Physiology in 1904
 Died in Feb 27, 1936
Brief overview of Pavlov’s Experiment

 Pavlov discovered classical conditioning

almost by accident.
 Originally, he had been studying the
role of salivation in digestion.
 He measured how much saliva dogs
produce when given meat.
 After a few days in the experiment,
Pavlov noticed that the dogs in his
laboratory started salivating
• When the lab attendant entered
the room with the meat dish.
 Video on Pavlov’s Experiment

..\..\..\..\Downloads\Video\Pavlovs Dogs.mp4
Steps in Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning: is when a neutral
stimulus gradually gain the ability to elicit
a response because of its former pairing
with a natural/unconditioned stimulus.

A. Stimulus: a physical energy source

that has an effect on a sense
organ, thus producing a response.
B. Response: an action, behavior, or
reaction triggered by a stimulus.
 The key element in classical
conditioning is association.
 It means that if two stimuli
repeatedly experienced together,
they will become associated.
Basics/Key terms in classical conditioning

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

 This is a stimulus that naturally brings
a response without having been learned
Example; smell of food causes

salivation
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 This is a response that is natural and
needs no training
 Example; salivation at the smell
of food
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS-Bell)
A stimulus that brings a response
while paired with the unconditioned
stimulus (meat).
 Example; while the bell rings, the dog
salivates because, the dog associated
the bell with food due to conditioning.
4. Conditioned Response (CR)
 It is the learned response that is
evoked by the conditioned stimulus.
 Example; The dog’s salivation in
response to sound of the bell (in the
absence of meat)
 Principles of Classical Conditioning

1. Stimulus generalization: when stimuli

similar to a conditioned stimulus produce
similar response.
2. Stimulus discrimination: learning to
respond to certain stimuli & not to
respond to others.
3. Extinction: unlearning a learned response
because of the removal of the original
source of learning (US)
4. Spontaneous Recovery: returning to the
original circumstances.
2. Operant/Instrumental Conditioning
1. Why do horses gallop faster when the
rider whips them?
2. Why do we find surprise gifts in the
packs of detergents?
3. Why do employees who earn profit to
the organization get a bonus at the
end of year?

The answers to all these questions can be

found in the operant conditioning approach
 Proponents/founders
1. Edward Thorndike
2. B.F. Skinner

Edward Thorndike B.F. Skinner

(1874- 1949) (1904–1990)
 Thorndike (1874- 1949) was the pioneer in
studying this kind of learning.
 Skinner (1904–1990) further expanded
Thorndike‘s ideas.
 Thorndike formulated the Law of Effect.

Law of Effect
 Behavior that brings about a satisfying effect
(reinforcement) is apt to be performed again.
 Whereas behavior that brings about negative
effect (punishment) is apt to be suppressed.
According to operant conditioning:
 Organisms learn by associating
a behavior & its consequence.

There are two concepts in

operant conditioning;
1. Reinforcement
2. Punishment
Reinforcement: is anything that causes a
response to be more likely to happen again.
Punishment: stimulus that weakens the
response or makes it less likely to occur.
Types of reinforcement and punishment
Which type of reinforcement & punishment is
applied?

1. Second-grade students in Dallas, USA were paid

$2 each time they read a book & passed a short
quiz about the book-PR
2. If someone nags you all the time to study, but
stops nagging when you comply, your studying is
likely to increase - because you will then avoid
the nagging-NR
3. Car manufacturers plug a device in their seatbelt
systems, which go “beep, beep” until you fasten
your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you
exhibit the desired behavior-NR
 Schedules of reinforcement

Schedules of reinforcement: denotes a rule

for when reinforcers will be given following
the performance of a desired behavior.
Types reinforcement schedules
Identify Types reinforcement schedules

1. Factory worker getting paid for every x

number of items manufactured-FR
2. Gambling-VR
3. A teacher receives his salary every
month-FI
4. A grade is assigned at the end of every
semester-FI
 When does punishment work?

1. Schedule of punishment: punishment

is more effective when it is
delivered consistently.
2. Intensity of punishment: intensive
physical punishment in childhood is a
risk factor for depression, low self-
esteem, violent behavior.
3. Immediacy: punishment should be
immediate
4. Variation of the punishment: varying
the type & extent of the punishment
enhances effect of punishment .
3. Observational/Social Learning
Theory

The prime proponent of this

theory is Albert Bandura.
Social learning theory believes
that people learn by observing
or imitating other people.
Processes of Observational Learning
4. Cognitive Learning Theory
1. Did we learn as a result of mere
association of stimulus and response;
or was it learnt just because we were
reinforced for it?
2. Why does a soldier keep resisting the
strong enemy without caring for his
life even when he can escape?
According to cognitive learning
theory
 Learning is more than just
stimulus-response association or
reward and punishment.
 All human intellectual activities
and potentials, i.e. thinking,
problem solving, and learning
require mental processes.
 Internal processes are essential in
understanding Behavior
 Chapter Four
Memory and Forgetting
 Memory: Overview

“If you lose the ability to recall your

old memories then you have no life.
You might as well be a cabbage”
James McGaugh (2003)

 Without memory, we would be a stranger

for every thing.
 It is our memory that enables us to
enjoy an experience and then mentally
replay and enjoy it again.
 Brain storming Questions

1. What do you think is a memory?

2. What are the biological bases of
memory?
Biological basis of memory: Hippocampus
Meaning and Processes of Memory

Memory
 Refers to our ability to retain
information about past
experiences
 A process by which we encode,
store and retrieve information.
 Processes of Memory
Memory is a process analogous to a computer,
which encodes, stores & retrieves information.
1.Encoding: getting information
in
2.Storage: retaining information
for future use
3.Retrieval: recovering
information from memory
storage
 Structures/ Forms/Stages of Memory

Stages of memory: indicates how information is

represented in memory, how long it lasts and
how it is organized.

 Richard Atkinson & Shiffrin (1971) proposed

‘tripartite models of memory;
1. Sensory Memory/Register (SM)
2. Short-Term Memory (STM)
3. Long- Term Memory (LTM)
How do these memory structures differ?

Each of the three structure differs in

the following ways.

 The content of information,

 The capacity & duration of
information,
 The way information is stored,
 The causes of information loss
 1. Sensory Memory/Registrar: SM

 Refers the initial, momentary

recording of information in our sensory
systems.
 Lasts only very briefly and then lost,
unless it is attended & processed,
 Information in this memory is a very
accurate & complete representation of
the environment but it is unprocessed.
 Capacity of sensory memory
 Very large: stores all information
reaching our senses for a brief time.
 Duration if the information is;
a) Visual information: Iconic memory
 A maximum of 1 second and
11-16 items of info.
b) Auditory information: Echoic memory
 A maximum of 2 seconds.
 2. Short Term Memory: STM

 This is the place where information is

temporarily kept for less than 1 minute.
 STM is also known as working memory,
immediate memory, active memory &
primary memory.
 The capacity of STM is limited to a very
small “bits” of information only 7+2.

More recent research suggests that the

average person, free from distraction, can
hold about: 7 digits, 6 letters, or 5 words.
 The information in STM is
fragile and easy to lose.

Ways of retention of information in STM;

1. Rehearsal
A. Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information
mentally or out loud (e.g., a person‘s name,
e-mail address, or phone number)
B. Elaborative Rehearsal: involves associating the
information to different things and persons
2. Chunking:
 The process of organizing information
into smaller groupings
 Examples of Chunking

How many of the letters do you remember?

U-D-F-O-E-S-R-B-M-T-A-C-I-N-V

USA-DRC-FBI-OMN-ETV
 3. Long Term Memory

 Used for relatively permanent

storage of meaningful
information.
 LTM stores information for
indefinite periods.
 The capacity of LTM also has no
practical limits.
 Sub-systems of LTM:

1. Declarative/Explicit/Memory: refers to
knowledge or experiences that can be
consciously remembered.
A. Episodic memory: memories for
firsthand experiences/events that we
have had (e.g. graduation day).
B. Semantic memory: our knowledge of
facts and concepts about the world
 2. Implicit/non-declarative memory;
 Refers to knowledge that we cannot
consciously access;
A. Procedural memory: it is the
knowledge of procedures or
skills:
Examples;
 Riding a bike/car
 Tying your shoe laces

Why implicit?
You don’t have to consciously remember the
steps involved in these actions to perform them
Serial Position Effect

 Bed
 Fresh
 Egg
 Teacher
 Radio
 Alarm
 Tomato
 Sugar
 Blanket
 Beer
 Hospital
 Freedom
 Election
 Forgetting: Meaning & Concepts

1. What is forgetting?
2. what causes forgetting?
3. Is forgetting bad/good?
Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting

 It is the apparent loss of

information already stored &
encoded in the LTM.
 It is the inability to recall
what has been learned.
 Theories of Forgetting

1. The Decay Theory

2. Interference theory
3. Displacement Theory
4. Motivated Forgetting
5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
 1. Decay Theory/Disuse

Memory traces/engram fades with time if

they are not accessed now and then.

 Hermann Ebbinghaus
first began to study
forgetting using
nonsense syllables
 He used 3-letter
nonsense syllables
that look like words
but are meaningless
(ROH, KUF)
 2. Interference Theory

Forgetting occurs because

similar items of information
interfere on another in either
storage or retrieval.
 Types of Interference

proactive Retroactive
Interference Interference

A. Proactive interference: when old learning

interferes with new one (Example: Old
password interferes with the new password)
B. Retroactive interference: when new learning
interferes with old one (Example; new phone
number interferes with old one)
 3.Displacement Theory

 New information entering in

the memory can wipe out old
information.
 Just as recording on an audio
or videotape will
obliterate/wipe out the original
material.
 4. Motivated Forgetting

 Freud maintained that

people forget those
memories that are too
threatening or painful to
live with.
 According to this theory,
people forget because they
are motivated to forget.
 5. Cue Dependent Forgetting

 Often when we need to remember, we

rely on retrieval cues
 Retrieval cue: items of
information that can help us find
the specific information we‘re
looking for.
 This is the “tip of the tongue
phenomenon”
 When we lack retrieval cues, we may
feel as if we have lost the password for
our email account.
 Improving Memory

1. Pay attention and reduce interference

2. Make a connection between new
information and what you already know.
3. Chunking-Organization
4. Use distributed practice than massed
practice-due to the serial position effect
5. Testing oneself: than reviewing/rereading
6. Overlearning: continue to study known
material
7. Communicate: say what you are studying
out loud, it helps to order it and learn it
 Chapter Five
Motivation and Emotion
 I. Motivation

 The word motivation:comes from the Latin

word “Mover’, which means “to move’.
 Motivation: any force that initiate,
energizes, directs and sustain a behavior.

A. Intrinsic motivation: when the act itself is

satisfying in some internal manner.
B. Extrinsic motivation: when the act leads to
an outcome that is external to a person.
Approaches/Theories of motivation

1. Instinct Theory
2. Drive-reduction Theory
3. Arousal Theory
4. Incentive Theory
5. Cognitive Theory
6. Humanistic theory
 1. Instinct Theory

States that motivation is the result of

innate, genetic programming (unlearned).

Examples of instincts;
 Curiosity
 Migrating
 Sucking
 Grasping
 Parental love
 2. Drive Reduction Theory

Drive theories assume that

people are always trying to
reduce internal tension
(Physiological need)
3. Arousal Theory

• Our needs go beyond reducing

drives.
• This is engaging in certain
activity to increase excitement
4. Incentive Theory

According to incentive theory,

motivation comes from the
environment around you.
 5. Humanistic Theory

 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

suggested that human motives are
organized in to a hierarchy of needs.
 He said that lower level needs must
be met before higher level needs.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
II: Emotion
 II: Emotion

 Emotion is derived from the Latin word

“Emovere” means “to excite/ agitate”.
 Emotion: a state characterized by
a) Physiological arousal (heart rate,
blood pressure, perspiration etc.
b) Behavioral changes (facial
expressions, gestures, posture),
c) Subjective feelings (labeling it as:
anger, fear, happiness, sadness)
 Theories of emotion

1. James- Lang Theory of Emotion

 Argued that physiological changes precede
emotional experiences.
 “I am afraid because I am aroused’, I’m
embarrassed because my face is red
2.Cannon-Bard Theory
 Argued that physiological & psychological
reactions occur at the same time.
3. Schechter-Singer
 Proposed that the physical arousal
and labeling of the arousal have to
happen before emotion occurs:
 Chapter Six
Personality

Who am I?
 Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you are

expected to:
 Explain what personality is in
general
 Explain personality using the
different theories
 Identify the basic features of
personality theories
What is personality?
The word personality comes from the Latin
term "persona“ (mask) worn by Greek actors)

Definition of Personality

 Individual’s consistent patterns of

feeling, thinking & behaving across
time & situations.
 The sum total of characteristics on
the basis of which people can be
differentiated from each other.
 Personality includes everything about
the person
 Theories of Personality

1.The Psychoanalytic Perspective

2.The Learning Perspective
3.The Humanistic Perspective
4.The Biological Perspective
5.The Trait Perspective
 I. Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s theory involves four components:

A. Level of consciousness
B. Structure of personality
C. Defense mechanisms
D. Psycho-sexual stages
 I. The Levels of Consciousness

A. The Conscious mind : contains all the

things of which a person is aware at
any moment.
B. The Preconscious mind : contains
information that a person is not aware
of at the moment, but easily accessible
when needed.
C. The Unconscious mind: a safe haven
for our recollection of painful
experiences that determines human
behavior & personality.
 II. Structure of personality
 Freudheld that personality consisted of three
separate, but interacting components:

A. Id
B. Ego
C. Super Ego

 Theyare not actual physical structures

found in certain part of the brain.
 Theyrepresent aspects of personality that
describe the interaction of various processes
and forces.
A. Id: If it feels good, do it
 Unconscious immoral part of the personality
that exists at birth.
 Contains all of the basic biological drives,
for example, hunger, thirst, sex,
aggression.
 These drives are fueled by―psychic energy
(libido), as Freud called it.
 Operates according to the pleasure
principle.
 Its goal is reduction of tension and the
maximization of satisfaction.
B. The Super Ego: The Moral-Watchdog
 Helps to integrate broad moral values of
society.
 These broad moral values are learned through
Socialization process in the family
Religious institutions
From the community at large.
 Super ego has two parts,
i. The conscience: prevents us from doing
immoral things.
ii. The ego ideal: motivates us to do what is
morally proper.
C. Ego: The Executive Director
 Conscious, rational & logical than the Id.
 Makes decisions, controls actions, and
allows problem solving of higher order
 Mediates opposing tendencies of the id &
the superego and enables to adjust to the
environment.
 Ego develops around the second year of
child's life when the child interacts with
reality.
  A person who has a strong ego, which can
balance the demands of the id and the
superego, has a healthy personality.
 However, imbalances in the system can
lead to neurosis (negative emotions &
unhealthy behavior)

Example
1. A person who is dominated by his Id might be
 Narcissistic
 Impulsive.
2. A person with a dominant Superego might be
 Controlled by feelings of guilt
 Restrain from socially acceptable pleasures
 Overly defensive
 III. Defense Mechanisms

 For Freud, our personality is the

outcome of continual battle among
the id, the ego & superego.
 Their struggle for dominance
sometimes produces anxiety & guilt.
 To protect against anxiety and guilt,
people use “psychological Defense
mechanisms”.
1. Repression
 Involvesbanishing threatening thoughts,
feelings, and memories into the unconscious.

Example
1. Let’s say your car is making a strange noise,
but because you don’t have the money to get
it fixed, you just turn up the radio so that
you no longer hear the strange noise.
Eventually you forget about it.
2. A person who witnesses his parents having
sex is later unable to remember anything
about the event.
2. Regression
 This
is a retreat to earlier or primitive
forms of behavior.
Example; A five-year-old child who resents
the arrival of a newborn sibling may act like a
baby and revert to drinking out of a bottle.

3. Denial
 Thisis refusal to recognize or acknowledge a
threatening situation.
Example; Denying that your physician's
diagnosis of cancer is correct and seeking
a second opinion
4. Rationalization
 Thisis giving a plausible and acceptable
reason for one's behavior in order to hide
one's real motives.

Example
1. Stating that you were fired
because you didn't kiss up the
boss, when the real reason was
your poor performance.
2. A woman with a closet full of
dresses buys a new one because she
doesn't have anything to wear.
5. Displacement
 Involves expressing feelings toward a person who is
less threatening than the person who is the true
target.
Example:
1. Slamming a door instead of hitting the
person,
2. yelling at your spouse after an argument with
your boss.
6. Projection
 Involvesattributing one's own undesirable feelings to
other people.
Example;
 When losing an argument, you state, “You're
just Stupid”.
7. Reaction Formation
 This is taking the opposite belief because the true
belief causes anxiety.
 Acting in a manner exactly opposite to our true feelings.
Example;
 Someone may be extremely calm and relaxed, but
may have a lot of repressed hostility and anger
that they are unaware of on a conscious level.
8. Undoing
 Thisis the attempt to take back an unconscious
behavior or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful.
Example
 After realizing you just insulted your significant
other unintentionally, you might spend then the
next hour praising their beauty, charm & intellect.
9. Sublimation
 Involves expressing sexual or aggressive behavior
through indirect, socially acceptable outlets.
Example:
 Sublimatingyour aggressive impulses toward a
career as a boxer;
10. Compensation
 Involvespsychologically counter-balancing perceived
weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other arenas.
Example
 When a person says, “I may not know how to
cook, but I can sure do the dishes!,” they’re
trying to compensate for their lack of cooking
skills by emphasizing their cleaning skills.
IV. Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development

According to Freud
 If people look at the development of their
behavior, they could gain insight into their
current behavior.
 The first five years have a decisive effect on
the development of adult personality.
 From birth on we have an innate tendency to
seek pleasure through stimulation of parts of
the body that are sensitive to touch:
A. Mouth,
B. Anus &
C. Genitals.
 Freud called these parts Erogenous Zones.
 All people pass through five critical stages of
personality development.
 Conflicts that are not fully resolved can
result in fixation.
 The child may grow into an adult but will
still carry emotional and psychological
“baggage” from that earlier fixed stage.

Fixation:
 Reversing to an earlier stage of
psychosexual development and
displaying the childish behavior.
 Being developmentally arrested or
stopped at a particular stage.
 1. Oral Stage (Birth-18 months)

 The “baby‘s mouth” is the focal point of

pleasure.
 The infant interacts with the world mainly
through “eating”.
 Infants at this stage suck, and bite anything
that will fit into their mouth.
 Infants who receive either too little
or too much gratification become
fixated or locked in the oral stage
1. A child with too little oral gratification
will have the following characteristics
 Over eating & drinking too much,
 Chain smoking & talking too much,
 Nail biting & gum chewing and
 Aggressive and pessimistic
2. A child with too much oral gratification
will have the following characteristics
 Dependent and optimistic
 Demand satisfaction from others
 Act in a needy way.
 2. Anal Stage (18 months-3 years)

 The major source of pleasure changes

from the mouth to the anal region.
 Children are trained about toilet.
 Children derive considerable pleasure
from both retention & expulsion of feces.

If this toilet training was either too

harsh or too lenient, children would
become fixated in the anal stage and
become likely to regress to this stage
1. Anal expulsive personalities: If parents
had been too lenient
 Messy
 Careless
 Disorganized
 Prone to emotional outbursts
2. Anal retentive personality: If parents
had been very harsh
 Stingy
 Stubborn
 Excessively neat
 Orderly
 Punctual.
 3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years )

 Interest focuses on the genitals and

pleasure is derived from fondling them.
 Pleasure comes from masturbation & sex
play.
 The penis is the focus for both boys &
girls.

Children at this engage in a childhood

game called “I will show you mine, if
you show me yours.”
I. Girls experience Penis Envy & Electra
Complex

A. Penis Envy
 Girls would feel that they were missing
something vital (Penis) and could not be
complete without it, leading to feelings
of inferiority called “penis envy”.
B. Electra Complex
 Similarly, girls develop sexual
attractions to their fathers and jealousy
of their mothers.
II. Boys experience Castration Anxiety &
Oedipus Complex:

A. Castration Anxiety
 Boys up on seeing that the girls had
no penis, would think that the penis
can be lost or cut off and develop a
fear of losing the penis.
B. Oedipus Complex:
 Boys develop both sexual attractions
to their mothers and jealousy of
their fathers during this stage.
 Fixation in the phallic stage involves

 Immature sexual attitudes

 Promiscuous sexual behavior & being
very vain.
 Adult males behave in a brash,
boastful, and reckless manner.
 Men may be “mamma’s boys” who
never quite grow up
 Women may look for much older
father figures to marry.
 4. Latency Stage (6-11 years)

At this stage:
 Children will remain in dormant sexual
feelings.
 Children develop intellectually,
physically & socially but not sexually.
 Boys play with other boys, girls play
only with girls, and each thinks the
opposite sex is pretty awful.
5. Genital Stage (Age 12 and above)

During this stage

 Sexual feelings reemerge & the focus
is on mature adult sexuality (sexual
intercourse).
 The focus of sexual curiosity &
attraction will become
A. Other adolescents,
B. Rock stars,
C. Movie stars and
D. Other objects of adoration.
II. Behaviorist view of personality

 Behaviorists do not believe in biological

determinism:
 They do not see personality traits as
inborn.
 They view personality as significantly
shaped by the reinforcements and
consequences.
 Believe that environment was solely
responsible for all behavior.
 Argue that personality is best understood
by looking at features of a person‘s
environment.
 III. Biological Approaches

How much of our

personality is inborn?

Bio-psychologists believe that personality

is inherited & physiological processes
determine differences in personalities.
 In the field of behavioral genetics, the
Minnesota Study of Twins conducted
research on 350 pairs of twins from 1979
to 1999.
 Findings of the study indicated Identical
twins, whether raised together or apart,
have very similar personalities.
 These heritable traits includes;
A. Leadership skills
B. Obedience to authority
C. Intelligence
D. Resistance to stress & fear
 Constitutional psychology examines the
relationship between the structure of the human
body and behavior.
 According to William H. Sheldon, your body type
can be linked to your personality.
 Sheldon proposed three body types (somatotypes)
1. Ectomorphs
2. Endomorphs
3. Mesomorphs
1. Ectomorphs: are thin with a small bone structure
and very little fat on their bodies.
Personality type:
Anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful,
quiet, and private.
They enjoy intellectual stimulation and
Feel uncomfortable in social situations.
2. Endomorphs: Endomorphs have narrow shoulders and
wide hips, and carry extra fat on their round bodies.
Personality type:
Relaxed,comfortable, good-humored, even-
tempered, sociable, and tolerant.
Endomorphs enjoy affection and detest
disapproval.
3. Mesomorph
 havelarge bone structure, well-defined muscles,
broad shoulders, narrow waists, and attractive, strong
bodies.
Personality type:
 Adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless.
 They are curious and enjoy trying new things, but
can also be obnoxious and aggressive.
Skinner
 Human beings are infinitely
changeable.
 Personality develops over our entire
life, not only in the first few years.
 Our responses can change as we
come across new situations;
IV. Humanistic Theories of Personality

Founders;
1. Abraham Maslow
2. Carl Rogers
Abrham Maslow (1908-1970)
 Studied people who were considered to be
healthy, creative, and productive.
 Motivational processes lie at the very core
of personality development.
 Depicted the human being as a ‘’wanting
organism’’ who rarely reaches a state of
complete satisfaction.
 Humans have five hierarchy of needs.
A. Physiological needs
B. Safety and security needs
C. Belongingness and love needs
D. Self-esteem needs
E. Self-actualization needs.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
 Human beings are always striving
to fulfill their innate capacities
and become everything they want.
 An important tool in human self-
actualization is the development of
self-concept.
 Positive regard is vital to cope
with stress and to strive to
achieve self-actualization.
 How would you respond to the
question, “Who am I?”

A. If your response is primarily

positive,
 You tend to feel good about who
you are
 You see the world as a safe &
positive place.
B. If your response is mainly negative,
 You may feel unhappy with who
you are.
 The self is divided into two categories:
A. The Ideal Self: The person that you
would like to be;
B. The Real Self: The person you
actually are.
 We need to achieve congruence between
these two selves.
 High congruence leads to a greater
sense of self-worth & productive life
 Great discrepancy between ideal &
actual selves lead to abnormality.
 This can be achieved by giving
unconditional positive regard.
Major tents of Humanistic theory

 Each of us is responsible for who we

are and what we become.
 Man is nothing else but what he
makes of himself.
 Each person is the chief architect
of his/her behavior and experience.
 We are solely responsible for the
choices we make.

WE ARE OUR CHOICES!

 V. Trait Theories

 All people possess certain traits, but that the

degree to which a particular trait applies to a
specific person varies and can be quantified.
 The most common way to describe people is to
list these traits or qualities possessed by them.
 The following theorists are famous for their
work on personality studies using traits.
1. Golden Allport
2. Raymond Cattell
3. Hans Eysenck
4. Robert McCrae & Paul Costa (Five-factor)
The Big Five: Five factor Personality model

 This is the recent approach to

understand personality traits.
 The five factors are
A. Openness to experience
B. Conscientiousness,
C. Extraversion
D. Agreeableness
E. Neuroticism (Emotional stability)
 These can be remembered by using the
acronym “OCEAN”
 Open Rigid
 Curios,  Uncreative
Openness to  Imaginative  Conforming
experience  Creative  predictable

Conscientious Impulsive
 Responsible  Quick to give up
Conscientiousness  persevering  Fickle
 self-disciplined  Careless
 Punctual  Negligent
Extroversion Introversion
 Outgoing  Shy
 Talkative  Silent,
Extraversion  Sociable  Lonely
 Adventurous  Watchful
 Agreeable Antagonistic
 Good natured  Irritable
Agreeableness  Cooperative  Harsh
 Trusting  Suspicious
 Friendly  Jealous

Neurotic Emotionally
stable
 Anxious  Calm
Neuroticism  Impulsive  Secure
 Worrier  Relaxed
 Insecure  Stable
 Chapter Seven
Abnormal Behaviors & Psychotherapy

At the end of this unit, you are

expected to:
 Identify the criteria used for
defining psychological disorders.
 Distinguish the different types,
features and symptoms of
psychological disorders.
 Use different theories to explain
the nature of abnormality.
1. Have you ever had an
encounter with a person with
mental disorder?
2. How do you know that the
person is with mental disorder?
 Historical Definition of Abnormality

 Ancientpeople assumed that people who were

behaving oddly were possessed by evil sprits.
 As a result they used trepanning &
exorcism as a healing technique.

Trepanning: cutting holes into the

skull of a living person aiming to
release the “demons”.

Exorcism: formal casting out of the

demon through a religious ritual.
Contemporary Definition of Abnormality

What is Abnormality?

 There are different ways in which abnormal

behavior can be defined. These are:

1.Statistical Deviation
2.Subjective Discomfort
3.Maladaptiveness
1. Statistical deviation

 Frequentlyoccurring behavior would be

considered normal, and behavior that is
rare would be abnormal.
 When someone behaves in culturally
unacceptable ways, this person is most
likely to have a psychological problem.

 However, a mere deviation from the

mass can’t be sufficient for diagnosis.
 Hence, we need to consider the context
in which a person‘s behavior happens.
Examples of statistical deviation & Abnormality

If you ask a classmate for a date & you are

rejected, you probably would feel a little
disappointed. Such feelings would be normal.

But, if you felt extremely depressed;

 So much that you lost interest in activities
 Had difficulty eating or sleeping
 Felt utterly worthless, and
 Contemplated suicide
Your feelings would be atypical, would deviate
from the norm, and could signify the
presence of a psychological disorder.
Statistical deviation but not Abnormality

For example, only about 4% of people

in the United States have red hair.

 Although, red hair is considered an atypical

characteristic, but it is not considered
disordered, it’s just unusual.

Just because something is

atypical, however, does not
necessarily mean it is disordered.
2. Subjective Discomfort

This refers experiencing a great

deal of discomfort or emotional
distress while engaging in a
particular behavior.

However, all abnormal behavior does

not necessarily create subjective
discomfort in the person communicating
the act.
3. Maladaptiveness

This refers inability to

function normally & fit into
society.
 This is when the person
finds it hard to adapt to
the demands of day-to-
day living.
 In general

 Psychological disorder is any

pattern of behavior, thoughts &
inner experiences that is;
A. Deviant
B. Distressful
C. Dysfunctional
D. Dangerous
 Perspectives on Psychological Disorders

1. The Biological Perspective

 Assumes that mental disorders arise from

such physical causes such as;
 Genetic factors
 Chemical imbalances &
 Brain abnormalities

Example
A person with schizophrenia would be diagnosed by
prescribing drugs to restore the balance of
dopamine.
2. Psychoanalytic perspective

 Freud believed that the human mind consists of

three interacting forces:
 Id: pool of biological urges
 Ego: mediates between the id & reality
 Superego: represent society‘s moral standards

Therefore, abnormal behavior is caused by

the ego’s inability to manage the conflict
between the opposing demands of the id and
the superego.
3. Learning perspective

People acquire abnormal behaviors through

the various kinds of learning.

4. Cognitive perspective

People'sways of thinking (internal dialogue)

about events in their life determines their
emotional and behavioral patterns.
 Self-defeating thoughts lead to the
development of negative emotions & self-
destructive behaviors.
Classification of Psychological Disorders

Currently, there are two

classification systems.

1.DSM: Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders
2.ICD: International
Classification of Diseases
 For our purpose, we will see eight
classifications of psychological disorders

1. Anxiety Disorders
2. Obsessive-Compulsive
Related Disorders
3. Somatoform Disorders
4. Dissociative Disorders
5. Mood Disorders
6. Personality Disorders
7. Schizophrenia
8. Sexual Disorders
 1. Anxiety Disorders
 Disorders characterized by excessive or
unrealistic anxiety.
 Ananxiety disorder has five different
categories.

A. Phobic Disorders
B. Social Anxiety Disorder
C. Panic Disorder
D. Generalized Anxiety Disorder
E. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
A. Phobic Disorders

 This is an irrational & persistent fear of

something.
 The “something” might be an object or a
situation.
 Examples of Specific Phobias
Phobia Feared object/Situation
Acrophobia Heights
Aerophobia Flying
Arachnophobia Spiders
Claustrophobia Enclosed spaces
Cynophobia Dogs
Hematophobia Blood
Ophidiophobia Snakes
Mysophobia Fear of germs or dirt
Astraphobia Fear of thunder and lightning
Trypanophobia Injections
Zenophobia Strangers
B. Social Anxiety Disorder

Involve a fear of interacting with others

or being in a social situation.

People with a social phobia

 Are afraid of being evaluated in
some negative way by others.
 Tend to avoid situations that could
lead to something embarrassing.
 Some anxiety provoking situations include;

 Public speaking
 Having a conversation
 Meeting strangers
 Eating in restaurants &
 Using public restrooms

 Peoplewith social phobia typically perform

safety behaviors.

Safety behaviors: mental or

behavioral acts that reduce
anxiety in social situations.
 Some examples of Safety
behaviors
 Avoiding eye contact
 Rehearsing sentences before speaking
 Assuming roles in social situations that
minimize interaction with others
 Ask people many questions to keep the
focus off of oneself
 Wearing bland, neutral clothes to
avoid drawing attention
 Self-medication, such as drinking
alcohol
C. Panic disorders

 People with panic disorder experience

recurrent (more than one) and unexpected
panic attacks.
Along with at least one month of
persistent concern about additional panic
attacks,

A panic attack: is defined as a period of

extreme fear or discomfort that develops
abruptly & reaches a peak within 10 minutes.
 Symptoms

 Accelerated heart rate

 Trembling
 Choking sensations
 Hot flashes or chills
 Dizziness or lightheadedness
 Fear of losing control or going crazy
 Fears of dying
D. Generalized Anxiety Disorder
 Thisis a relatively continuous state of
excessive, uncontrollable & pointless worry
and apprehension.

Example
An individual may worry about her health and
finances, the health of family members, the
safety of her children, or minor matters
(e.g., being late for an appointment) without
having any legitimate reason for doing so.
E. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
 For a person to be diagnosed with PTSD, he/she
must be exposed to, witness, or experience
traumatic experience, this includes;

A. Sexual violence
B. Combat
C. Natural disasters
D. Terrorist attacks
E. Car accidents
F. Imprisonment
 Symptoms

1. Re-experiencing of the traumatic

event: Flashbacks & nightmares
2. Avoidance of stimuli connected to
the event
3. Persistent negative emotional states
(fear, anger, guilt & shame)
4. Feelings of detachment from others

..\..\Disorder videos\PTSD\Impact Short Film E

xploring PTSD by Elle Smart FIRST ACTS.mp4
2. Obsessive-Compulsive Related Disorders

 Involve intrusive & unpleasant thoughts &

repetitive behaviors.
 Classified into three categories.

A. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
B. Body Dysmorphic Disorder
C. Hoarding Disorder
A. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
 Experiencing thoughts & urges that
are intrusive & unwanted (obsessions)
 Engaging in repetitive behaviors or
mental acts (compulsions).
 This includes
 Spending hours each day washing
your hands
 Constantly checking whether a
stove or light has been turned off
 Counting
 B. Body Dysmorphic Disorder
 Perceived flaw in ones physical
appearance that is either
nonexistent or barely noticeable.
 A belief that a person is ugly or
deformed.
 This causes them to;
1. Constantly looking in the mirror
2. Hide the offending body part
3. Make comparisons with others
4. Engage in cosmetic surgery

..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\Living With Body Dysmorphia

& OCD UNILAD - Documentary.mp4
 C. Hoarding Disorder:
 These individuals accumulate
excessive amounts of usually
worthless items.
 They have great difficulty parting
with items because
1. They believe the items might
be of some later use
2. They form a sentimental
attachment to the items

..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\Hoarder Denise's House Tour

Hoarding Buried Alive.mp4
 3. Mood Disorders
What is the difference between mood &
emotion?

 Common cold of psychological disorders.

 Severe & pervasive distortion of ones
emotional states.
 Extreme mood fluctuations & inability
to function normally.

Types of mood disorders

A. Major Depressive
B. Bipolar Disorder
A. Major Depressive Disorder/Unipolar
 Depressed mood, nearly every day
 Feeling sad, empty, hopeless
 Low self esteem
 Appearing tearful to others
 Loss of interest & pleasure in
usual activities. Such as;
1. Sports
2. Sex
3. Social events
4. Spending time with family
 To receive a diagnosis; one must experience a
combination of the following symptoms.

 Significant weight loss/weight gain

 Significant decrease or increase in
appetite
 Difficulty falling asleep/Sleeping
too much
 Fatigue or loss of energy
 Feelings of worthlessness or guilt;
 Poor concentration
 Suicidal ideation/Suicidal thought
..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\Bipolar Disorder Short Film
(Stigma Awareness).mp4
B. Bipolar disorder/Manic Depression
 Experiencing mood states that vacillate
between depression & mania
 People with BPD are characterized by;
 Extreme talkativeness with rapid
speech
 Excessive energy despite lack of
sleep
 Inflated but unjustified self-
esteem
 Assume many tasks simultaneously
 Irritable & restless
 Conversations with strangers

..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\BIPOLAR Short Film.mp4

 4. Personality Disorders

Personality disorders: are marked by

inflexible, disruptive & enduring
behavior patterns that impair social &
other functioning-whether the
sufferer recognizes that or not.
 The DSM-5 recognizes 10 personality disorders,
organized into 3 different clusters.

A. Cluster A disorders: Odd & Eccentric

1. Paranoid personality disorder
2. Schizoid personality disorder
3. Schizotypal personality disorder
B. Cluster B disorders: Impulsive, Dramatic, Erratic
1. Antisocial personality disorder
2. Histrionic personality disorder
3. Narcissistic personality disorder
4. Borderline personality disorder
C. Cluster C disorders: Nervous & fearful
1. Avoidant personality disorder
2. Dependent personality disorder
3. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
I. Cluster A disorders: Odd & Eccentric

A. Paranoid:
 Pervasive & unjustifiable
suspiciousness & mistrust of others
 Reluctant to confide in or become
close to others;
 Reads hidden & threatening meaning
into caring events.
 Often jealous, guarded, secretive,
overly serious.
 Takes offense easily and bears
grudges (complaints);
B. Schizoid
 Lacks interest to form relationships
with others;
 Aloof and shows emotional coldness
and detachment;
 Indifferent to approval or criticism
of others;
 Humorless, distant, daydreamer &
absorbed with own feelings
 Lacks close friends or confidants.
C. Schizotypal
 Exhibits oddness in thought,
perception, emotion & speech
 Peculiar or eccentric manners of
speaking or dressing.
 Strange beliefs & magical thinking
 Difficulty forming relationships.
II. Cluster B disorders: Dramatic & Erratic

A.Antisocial
 Continuously violates the rights of
others
 Often lies, fights, and has
problems with the law;
 Impulsive and fails to think ahead;
 Deceitful and manipulative in order
to gain profit or pleasure;
 Irresponsible and fails to hold
down a job or pay financial debts;
 Lacks remorse over misdeeds.
 B. Histrionic
 Excessively overdramatic,
emotional, and theatrical;
 Feels uncomfortable when not the
center of others’ attention;
 Grandiose language, provocative
dress, exaggerated illnesses, all to
gain attention.
 Believes that everyone loves them.
 Emotional & enthusiastic.

..\..\..\2012 disorder videos\The Fake Samuel Zemichael

Speaking to Students DireTube Video by FanaBCvia
torchbrowser com - YouTube.MP4
C. Narcissistic
 Overinflated & unjustified sense
of self-importance.
 Preoccupied with fantasies of
success;
 Assumes others will recognize
they are superior.
 Good first impressions but poor
longer-term relationships.
D. Borderline
 Unstable in self-image, mood, and
behavior;
 Can’t tolerate being alone &
chronic feelings of emptiness;
 Mood swings, identity problems,
 Unstable and intense relationships
with others;
 Impulsive, unpredictable, and
self-damaging Behavior.
III. Cluster C disorders: Nervous & Fearful

A. Avoidant
 Socially inhibited & oversensitive
to negative evaluation;
 Avoids occupations that involve
interpersonal contact.
 Feels inadequate and views self
as socially inept and unappealing;
 Unwilling to take risks or engage
in new activities.
B. Dependent
 Allows others to take over and run
their life;
 Are submissive, clingy, and fears
separation;
 Can’t make decisions without advice
& reassurance from others;
 Lacks self-confidence; cannot do
things on their own;
 Feels uncomfortable or helpless
when alone.
C. Obsessive-Compulsive
 Pervasive need for perfectionism;
 Preoccupied with details, rules,
order & schedules;
 Excessive devotion to work at the
expense of leisure & friendship.
 Rigid, inflexible, and stubborn;
 5. Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia: severe & devastating

disorder characterized by
A. Disturbances in thought,
perception, emotion & behavior.
B. Significant impairment in many
day-to-day activities
 Symptoms of Schizophrenia

I. Delusions:
 False beliefs about the world that tend
to remain fixed even in the face of
evidence.

A. Paranoid/Delusions of Persecution:
 A believe that others are trying
to hurt them in some way.
 Example; a person may believe
that his mother is plotting with
the FBI to poison his coffee
B. Delusions of Reference
 A believe that other people,
television characters & books are
specifically talking to them.
C. Delusions of Influence:
 A believe that they are being
controlled by external forces, such
as the devil or cosmic forces.
D. Delusions of Grandeur;
 People are convinced that they are
powerful people who can save the
world or have a special mission.
E. Somatic Delusion
 A belief that something highly
abnormal is happening to one’s body
(e.g. One's kidneys are being eaten
by cockroaches).
II. Hallucinations
 Conditions in which people hear
voices or see things or people
that are not really there.

III. Speech Disturbance

 Schizophrenic people will string
words together on the basis of
sounds (called clanging), such as
 “Come into house, louse, mouse,
mouse & cheese, please, sneeze”,
IV. Disorganized motor behavior
 Becoming unusually active &
engaging in purposeless movements.
 Exhibiting silly child-like behaviors
(giggling & self-absorbed smiling),
 Displaying odd facial expressions &
gestures.
 Maintaining rigid & bizarre posture
for long periods of time.
 Complete lack of movement and
verbal behavior.
V. Emotional Disturbance
 Noticeable decreases and absences
in certain emotions or drives.
 Emotions can also be excessive or
inappropriate.

Example
A person might laugh when it would be
more appropriate to cry or show sorrow.
Thank
you!