ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Chemistry @ MBCC
Pre-University Sciences
Science 1
 OBJECTIVES
1.1 Discuss the process of theoretical change with respect to Dalton’s Atomic theory
1.2 Describe the structure of the atom
1.3 Define: Mass Number, Isotopes, RAM and RIM
1.4 Explain the phenomenon of radioactivity
1.5 Cite the use of radioisotopes
1.6 Calculate the RAM of mass of an element, given isotopic masses and abundances
1.7 Explain how data from emission spectra provide evidence for discrete energy levels within an atom
1.8 Describe the atomic orbitals
1.9 Describe the shapes of the s and p orbitals
1.10 Determine the electronic configurations of atoms and ions in terms of s, p and d orbitals
1.11 State the factors which influence the first ionisation energy of elements
1.12 Explain how ionisation energy data provide evidence for sub-shells
1.13 Derive the electronic configuration of an element from data on successive ionisation energies
1.1 Discuss the process of theoretical change with
respect to Dalton’s atomic theory
 Hypothesis
⚫ What is a hypothesis?
- An educated guess, based on observation

⚫ A hypothesis can be used to:

- to guide experimentation
- aid in problem solving
- help develop new theories

⚫ Hypotheses
- can be supported or refuted through experimentation
- can be disproven, but not proven to be true
 Theory
⚫ Scientific theory summarizes a hypothesis or group of hypotheses
that have been supported with repeated testing

⚫ Theories are well-established explanations for experimental data

⚫ A theory is “an accepted hypothesis”

⚫ Theory
- valid as long as there is no evidence to dispute it
- usually can not be proven, but can be disproven
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
Four main assumptions:
1. Matter consists of small particles called atoms

2. Atoms are indestructible or indivisible

3. Atoms of the same elements are identical in mass & properties

4. Atoms combine chemically in simple whole number ratio to form

compounds
- Atoms combine in more than one simple whole number ratio
 DALTON ATOMIC THEORY
TWO errors in Dalton’s Theory:
1. Atoms are indestructible or indivisible
• Atoms can be sub-divided into subatomic particles (Protons,
Electrons, Neutrons)
• Atoms can be destroyed by nuclear reactions (splitting of the
nucleus)
2. Atoms of the same elements are identical in mass & properties
• Isotopes of atoms exists which have different properties
• Isotopes have different masses
http://mrsmorrittscience.weebly.com/9aep-atomic-structure-wk3.html
1.2 Describe the structure of the atom
 Atomic Structure
⚫ Atoms are electrically neutral species
- Contains equal numbers of Protons and Electrons
- Neutrons are uncharged
⚫ Nucleus
- Contains protons and neutrons
- Held by powerful nuclear forces
⚫ Electrons
- Orbit the nucleus

HomeWork
Read and make notes on Discovery of Subatomic Particles (Chapter 1, pg 3-4)
 Subatomic Particles
⚫ Mass of subatomic particles is measured relative to one twelfth of the mass of a
carbon-12 isotope
⚫ Charge is relative to proton and electron

Particles Relative Mass Relative Charge Location

Proton 1 +1 Nucleus

Neutron 1 0 Nucleus

Electron 1/1837 –1 Orbital

✔ Electrons (lightest)
are deflected at large
angles to the positive
(+) poles
✔ Protons (heaviest) are
deflected at smaller
angles towards the
negative (–) poles
✔ Neutrons (uncharged)
continue undeflected
through the field Behaviour of subatomic particles in an Electric (or
Magnetic) field
1.3 Define the following terms:
MASS NUMBER
ISOTOPES
RELATIVE ISOTOPIC MASS (RIM)
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (RAM)
 Review: Definitions
⚫ Atomic Number (Proton number)
- Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

⚫ Mass Number (Atomic Mass/Nucleon Number)

- sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms

• Relative Isotopic Mass

- the ratio of the mass of one atom of that isotope to one twelfth of the mass of
one atom of carbon-12 isotope

• Relative Atomic Mass

- the ratio of the average mass of one atom of an element to one twelfth of the
mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope
 Isotopes
• Atoms of an element that have the same atomic number but different
mass numbers

• Same number of protons but different number of neutrons

• Identical chemical properties (same number of electrons)

• Different physical properties (different masses)

 Examples of Isotopes
Atomic Number
Element Isotope (Protons) Neutrons Mass Number

Hydrogen-1 1 0 1
Hydrogen Hydrogen-2 1 1 2
Hydrogen-3 1 2 3
Carbon-12 6 6 12
Carbon
Carbon-13 6 7 13
Chlorine-35 17 18 35
Chlorine
Chlorine-37 17 20 37
Bromine-79 35 44 79
Bromine
Bromine-81 35 46 81
 Radioactivity
1.4 Explain the phenomenon of
radioactivity
 Radioactive Isotopes

Nucleus
- Strong nuclear force of attraction between nucleons
(protons & neutrons)

- As number of protons increase the positive charges in the

nucleus repel each other

- Number of neutrons increase more rapidly than the

number of protons in order to try & stabilize the nucleus

- Nuclei with >84 protons are unstable

 Nuclei Stability
Nuclei becomes stable by impulsively ejecting radioactive
particles or radiation
✔ Alpha particles

✔ Beta particles

✔ Gamma radiation

Emission of alpha & beta particles changes the number of protons

in the nucleus
✔ Different atom is produced
Behaviour of Radioactive Particles in an
Electric Field
 Alpha Particles
• Helium Nucleus

• Emission leads to decrease in atomic number by 2 and

mass number by 4

• Symbol is used in nuclear reactions

 Beta Particles
• Neutron disintegrates to a proton and an electron

• Proton remains in the nucleus; beta particle is emitted

from nucleus
• Atomic number increases by 1; Mass number unchanged
 Gamma Radiation
• Electromagnetic waves of short wavelength

• Emission of alpha or beta particles are usually accompanied by

emission of gamma rays

• Emission of particles (alpha or beta) results in atomic nucleus

being excited; excess energy is released as gamma rays and
nucleus returns to a more stable energy level
 Radioactivity – Band of Stability

• Repulsion between the positive charges of protons is minimized

by the presence of neutrons

• As atomic number increases, the neutron to proton (n/p) ratio

must also increase to keep the nucleus together

• In large atoms, increasing the number of neutrons is not

enough to keep the nucleus together, therefore, nucleus
becomes unstable (radioactive)
Penetrating Power
⚫ Alpha particles are the least
penetrating
⚫ Gamma rays are the most
penetrating
⚫ Alpha particles penetrate
air; blocked by paper
⚫ Beta particles penetrate
paper but are stopped by
aluminum foil.
⚫ Gamma rays are the most
difficult to stop and require
concrete, lead, or other
heavy shielding to block
them.
 Band of Stability
• Plot of the number of Neutrons vs number of Protons in a stable
nuclei

• Stable nuclei are located in a shaded area of the graph

• Shaded area is known as the Band of Stability

• Radioactive nuclei occur outside this band

✔ Nuclei above the
band of stability with
a high n/p ratio can
move towards the
band of stability by
emitting a beta
particle

✔ Heavy nuclei with

atomic number >84
tend to move towards
stability by emitting
an alpha particle

Band of Stability
Some radioactive nuclei must undergo multiple steps to reach the band of stability. An
example is shown below.
1.5 Cite the use of radioisotopes

http://ccef-coree.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/image033.jpg
 Homework
1. Find seven or more uses of radioactive isotopes?

2. Find six ways in which radioactive waste is disposed?

3. List and explain the main steps involved in Mass Spectrometry

4. Draw and label a diagram of a Mass Spectrometer

5. List the uses of Mass Spectroscopy

1.6 Calculate the RAM of mass of an element,
given isotopic masses and abundances
✔ Mass Spectrometer is
used to analyze the
masses of isotopes and
their relative abundances
✔ Principle of MS
1. VAPOURISATION
2. IONISATION
3. ACCELERATION
4. DEFLECTION
5. DETECTION

The Mass Spectrometer

 Principles of Mass Spectrometry
⚫ Vapourisation
- Sample is injected; heat is supplied to convert into gaseous form
X(l) 🡪 X(g)
⚫ Ionisation
- Gaseous sample bombarded with high energy electrons; cation is formed
X(g) + e- 🡪 X+(g) + e- + e-
⚫ Acceleration
- Ions are accelerated through an electric field and towards a magnetic field
⚫ Deflection
- Fast moving ions are deflected by magnets; lighter ions are deflected the most
- Angle of deflection depends on m/z ratio
⚫ Detection
- Detector records each species as a peak on a chromatogram
 Relative Isotopic Abundance

• The relative abundance of each isotope in a given element is the

ratio or percentages in which they exist in the world

• Relative isotopic abundances are used to calculate the Relative

Atomic Mass of elements in the periodic table

The mass of an element depends on the relative abundance of its

isotopes
 Relative Atomic Mass: Calculations

Calculate the relative atomic mass (Ar) of chlorine from

the mass spectrum data of chlorine atoms given below.
Atomic Atomic Weight Relative abundance (%)
Isotope

35
Cl 34.97 75.8

37
Cl 36.97 24.2
Relative Abundance: Calculations
 Relative Abundance: Calculations
Calculate the relative isotopic abundance of the two isotopes of chlorine
(35Cl and 37Cl) given the following data below.
Atomic Isotope Atomic Weight

Natural Cl 35.45

35
Cl 34.97

37
Cl 36.97
 Relative Abundance: Calculations

Let x = fraction 37Cl

and 1 – x = fraction 35Cl
 Homework
Calculate the relative atomic mass (Ar) of zirconium from the
mass spectrum data of zirconium atoms given below.
Atomic Atomic Weight Relative
Isotope Abundance/%
Zr
90
90 51.5
Zr
91
91 11.2
Zr
92
92 17.1
Zr
94
94 17.4
Zr
96
96 2.8
 Home Work
Calculate the relative isotopic abundance of the two isotopes of hydrogen
(1H and 2H) given the following data below.

Atomic Isotope Atomic Weight

Natural H 1.0080

1
H 1.0078

2
H 2.0141
✔ Percentage
abundance (or
intensity) vs m/z
✔ m/z is mass to charge
ratio
✔ Ions with a single
charge are selectively
accelerated
✔ Ions with a single
charge have m/z
value which is
equivalent to mass
itself

Mass Chromatogram
 Homework
Use the data from the mass spectrum below to
determine the RAM of the element
1.7 Explain how data from emission spectra provide
evidence for discrete energy levels within an atom
✔ White light when
focused through a
prism, disperses into
different components
and produces a
continuous spectrum

✔ Visible light is just one

type of electromagnetic
radiation

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

 EMR– Wave-particle duality
• Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is a form of transmitted energy
• EMR consists of all types of energy that can be seen, felt or recorded
• EMR can be viewed as:
✔ Particle
✔ Wave
 EMR – Particle

⚫EMR can be viewed as particles (packets) of energy,

called photons or quanta travelling in a wave-like
pattern at the speed of light

⚫Photons
✔ Have no mass
✔ Travel in wave–like pattern
✔ Speed of light (High Velocity)
EMR – Wave
• EMR can be viewed
as a travelling wave

• Waves are
characterized by:
✔ Wavelength
✔ Frequency
✔ Velocity (Speed)
 EMR – Wave Definitions

⚫Wavelength (λ)– distance between successive crests or

successive troughs of a wave

⚫Frequency (ν)– number of waves (cycles or oscillations)

that pass a given point in space in one second (Hertz)

⚫Speed of light (c) – speed of EMR in a vacuum

All EMR travel at the speed of light, c = 3 x 10 8 ms-1

 EMR– Planck’s Equation

Energy of a photon is directly proportional to the

frequency of the radiation

where: E is the energy (J)

h is Planck’s constant (6.63 x 10-34 J s)
ν is frequency (Hz or s-1)
 EMR Calculations
The wavelength and frequency of EMR are related

c = 3 x 108 ms-1

Useful Conversions
✔ 1 m = 100 cm = 1 x 106 μm = 1 x 109 nm

✔ 1 nm = 1 x 10-3 μm = 1 x 10-7 cm = 1 x 10-9 m

 EMR Calculations

Energy can be expressed in terms of the speed of light, wavelength

or wavenumber

c is the speed of light (c = 3 x 10 8 ms-1)

λ is the wavelength

Energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength

Relationship between Energy, Frequency and Wavelength
 Electromagnetic Radiation: Calculations

Calculate the energy of a photon with a wavelength of 5 μm

1 μm is equal to 10-6 m
5 μm is equal to 5 x 1 x 10-6 m = 5 x 10-6 m
 Useful Conversions

∙ Deci, d 10-1

∙ Centi, c 10-2

∙ Milli, m 10-3

∙ Micro , µ 10-6

∙ Nano, n 10-9

∙ Pico, p 10-12

∙ Femto, f 10-15
 Continuous vs. Discontinuous Spectrum

Continuous Spectrum
✔ No distinct division between the colours

Discontinous (Line) Spectrum

✔ Distinct lines
✔ Two types of line spectrum
- Absorption spectrum
- Emission spectrum
 Absorption Spectrum

A Line spectrum
✔ Dark lines represent the wavelengths of light absorbed by
element
✔ Unique spectrum produced
 Emission Spectrum

A Line spectrum
✔Coloured lines on dark background represent
wavelengths of light emitted by element
✔ Unique spectrum produced
 Atomic Spectra

Each element produces a unique spectrum that can be used

to identify it
 Bohr’s model for the Hydrogen atom
In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed a theory for the hydrogen
atom based on quantum theory
⚪ Energy is transferred only in certain well defined quantities.

⚪ Electrons should move around the nucleus but only in

prescribed orbits.

⚪ When jumping from one orbit to another with lower energy, a

light quantum is emitted.
Why are discrete lines seen in atomic spectra?
✔ Bohr’s model of the atom explains

✔ Energy of the electron is quantised

✔ Atom or molecule absorbs or emits

a quantum of energy exactly equal
between two energy levels
ΔE = E1 – E0

✔ The greater the difference in the

energy levels, the higher the
frequency of light emitted
Why are discrete lines seen in atomic spectra?
✔ When atoms interact with EMR, electrons absorb (or emit) light of a
particular wavelength (or frequency)

✔ Atoms heated to high enough temps emit light of a certain wavelength;

produces an emission pattern (emission spectrum)

✔ Each line in the emission spectrum represents a transition of the electron

✔ Atomic spectra provide evidence for the arrangement of electrons in the

atom
 Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen

Each line in the emission (line) spectrum of hydrogen

✔ Specific frequency

✔ Specific wavelength

✔ Specific quantum of energy (ΔE = Ey – Ex)

✔ Evidence: Discrete energy levels in the atom

 Energy Levels
• Atoms and molecules have
unique set of energy levels
• Electrons in an atom can
exist only in discrete energy
levels
• Lowest energy level is the
ground state
• Higher energy levels are
excited states
 Absorption & Emission
Absorption
✔ Quantum of energy (photon) is supplied to an atom & is absorbed
by electrons in the ground state

✔ The electron moves to a higher energy level (excited state)

Emission
✔ Quantum of energy (photon) is emitted from the atom resulting
from the excited electron in a higher energy level falling back to a
lower energy level
Absorption & Emission
Hydrogen Emission Spectrum
 Energy Levels & Quantum Numbers

Energy levels of an electron within an atom are assigned the

letter n.

n = PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER

Lowest energy level (Ground state) closest to the nucleus, n = 1

Next highest energy level , n = 2 and so on …

✔ Each line in the emission
spectrum of hydrogen arise
from a particular transition
of the electron from an
orbit of higher energy
level to an orbit of a lower
energy level
✔ There is a point in
spectrum where the lines
converge
✔ Convergence corresponds
to electrons falling from
the highest possible energy
level (highest frequency)
Origin of Lines in Emission Spectrum
Line Series
 Line Series in Emission Spectrum

Lyman series
Electron transitions from higher energy levels to principal quantum number,
n=1

Balmer Series
Electron transitions from higher energy levels to principal quantum number,
n=2

Paschen Series
Electron transitions from higher energy levels to principal quantum number,
n=3
 Line Series in Emission Spectrum

Brackett Series
Electron transitions from higher energy levels to principal
quantum number, n = 4

Pfund Series
Electron transitions from higher energy levels to principal
quantum number, n = 5
In each series, the lines comes closer together as the frequency increases together until it
converges to from a continuous spectrum
1.8 Describe the atomic orbitals
 Schroedinger Wave Equation
• Wave-particle duality of electrons
• The position of an electron is described in
terms of probability density
• An orbital is a region (volume of space
around the nucleus) where there is a high
probability of finding an electron of a
given energy (95%)
• Schroedinger Atomic model
✔ 3-D
✔ 3 quantum numbers (principal, angular,
magnetic)
 Quantum numbers
• The properties of an atom's electron configuration are
described by four quantum numbers

• Quantum numbers describe the:

- size
- shape
- orientation in space of the orbitals of the electron
 First Quantum Number

Principal Quantum Number (n)

⚫ Energy levels are assigned the letter n
⚫ Maximum number of electrons at n level is 2n 2
Energy Level No. of electrons

n=1 2
n=2 8
n=3 18
n=4 32
 Second Quantum Number
Angular Quantum Number (l)
⚫ Sublevels in n & Shape of the orbitals
⚫ s, p, d, f
⚫ Each energy level has n sublevels
Energy No. of Sublevels
Level Sublevels
n=1 1 1s
n=2 2 2s, 2p
n=3 3 3s, 3p, 3d
n=4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
 Third Quantum Number

Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

⚫ Number of orbitals within a sublevel

Sublevel No. of Max.

Orbitals Electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
 Fourth Quantum Number
Spin Quantum Number (ms)
Each electron has a magnetic field and a spin associated with that electron
Pauli Exclusion Principle
✔ No more than two (2) electrons can occupy an orbital

✔ Two (2) electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins

NO TWO ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM HAVE THE SAME FOUR

QUANTUM NUMBERS
1.9 Describe the shapes of the s and p
orbitals

S ORBITAL
P ORBITAL
 s Orbitals
• Spherical
• Each energy level has one s orbital
• Maximum number of electrons = 2
• 1s and 2s orbitals are similar in shape however electron density is closer to
the nucleus for the 1s orbital
 p Orbitals
• Dumb-bell shape
• Each energy level has three (3) degenerate p orbitals i.e. three (3) orbitals
of EQUAL ENERGY
1.10 Determine the electronic configurations of atoms and
ions in terms of s, p and d orbitals
 Electronic Configurations
How do we fill up energy
levels with electrons?

We use three rules:

⚫ Aufbau Principle
⚫ Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle
⚫ Hund’s Rule
 1. Aufbau Principle
Electrons are added one at a time, starting with the lowest
energy orbital
✔ s orbitals have slightly lower energy than the p orbitals in the same
energy level i.e. 2s < 2p

✔ s orbitals will ALWAYS fill before corresponding p orbitals

✔ s orbital have the lowest energy compared to p, d, and f

s<p<d<f
 1. Aufbau Principle (Cont’d)

Anomaly
• Irregularity in the position
of the 3d and 4s orbitals

• 3d has slightly more energy

than 4s

• 4s fills first then 3d orbitals

followed by 4p orbitals
 2. Pauli Exclusion Principle
• No more than two electrons can occupy an orbital

• The two (2) electrons in the same orbital must have opposite
spins

Why?
 3. Hund’s Rule

Electrons fill degenerate orbitals one at a time with

parallel spin before a second electron is added with
opposite spin
 Electronic Configurations (E.C)
Can you use these rules to fill up the energy levels for
the first twenty elements?

Three methods can be used to write the E.C:

1. Electron in the box method

2. Orbital method

3. Shortcut orbital method

 Electron-in-Box Method
The E.C for nitrogen may be written as:

Write the configuration for:

✔ Carbon
✔ Oxygen
✔ Phosphorus
✔ Calcium
 Orbital Method

• Principal Quantum number (1, 2, 3 etc.)

• Symbol for the orbital (s, p, d, f)
• Superscript that shows the number of electrons in the sublevel
 Orbital Method and Shortcut Method
For potassium, the arrangement of ⚫ We can use the Orbital
electrons is: method to write the E.C as:

⚫ But remember the nearest

noble gas to K has an E.C
of:

⚫ We can use a shortcut

method to write the E.C:
 Electronic Configurations – Abbreviated

He, Ne and Ar have electronic configurations with filled shells

of orbitals

Abbreviated electronic configurations for noble gases

He = 1s2 or [He]

Ne = 1s2 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]

Ar = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]

 Electronic Configurations

Symbol Electronic
Atomic Number
Configuration
1 H 1s1
2 He 1s2 or [He]
3 Li [He] 2s1
4 Be [He] 2s2
5 B [He] 2s2 2p1
6 C [He] 2s2 2p2
7 N [He] 2s2 2p3
8 O [He] 2s2 2p4
9 F [He] 2s2 2p5
10 Ne [He] 2s2 2p6 or [Ne]
 Electronic Configurations
Atomic Number Symbol Electronic Configuration

11 Na [Ne] 3s1
12 Mg [Ne] 3s2
13 Al [Ne] 3s2 3p1
14 Si [Ne] 3s2 3p2
15 P [Ne] 3s2 3p3
16 S [Ne] 3s2 3p4
17 Cl [Ne] 3s2 3p5
18 Ar [Ne] 3s2 3p6 or [Ar]
 Electronic Configurations
Atomic Number Symbol Electronic Configuration

21 Sc [Ar] 4s2 3d1

22 Ti [Ar] 4s2 3d2

23 V [Ar] 4s2 3d3

24 Cr [Ar] 4s1 3d5

25 Mn [Ar] 4s2 3d5

26 Fe [Ar] 4s2 3d6

27 Co [Ar] 4s2 3d7

28 Ni [Ar] 4s2 3d8

29 Cu [Ar] 4s1 3d10

30 Zn [Ar] 4s2 3d10

 Electronic Configurations - Anomaly
✔After 3p orbitals are filled, 4s orbital is filled before
the 3d orbital

✔ 4s orbital is at a slightly lower energy than the 3d

K is [Ar] 4s1
Ca is [Ar] 4s2
Sc is [Ar] 4s2 3d1
Filling up Orbitals
 Electronic Configurations - Anomaly
At Sc, the 3d orbitals begin to fill up (recall Hund’s rule)

Irregularity is seen in the electronic configuration of Cr

and Cu

✔ Cr is [Ar] 4s1 3d5

✔ Cu is [Ar] 4s1 3d10

 E.C – The Case of Cr and Cu
• A subshell is particularly stable if it is half full or full
• Given two configurations, the atom would "choose" the more stable one
For example:
✔ Cr has an E.C of [Ar]4s13d5 instead of [Ar]4s23d4

✔ Cu has an E.C of [Ar]4s13d10 instead of [Ar]4s23d9

An s electron can jump into the d orbital, giving the atom two half-full shells for Cr
and one half full shell and a full shell for Cu, which is more stable configuration
 Electronic Configurations - Anomaly
• Half-filled and filled sublevels of 3d orbitals decreases energy
• Spin pairing of the 4s orbital increases energy

https://www.caymanchem.com/app/template/chemAssistant,Tool.vm/itemid/4001
 Electron Configurations of Ions
Q. Write the E.C of Al3+
Aluminum loses three electrons when it forms an ion.
✔ The neutral atom of aluminum has 13 electrons
✔ The ion of aluminum, Al3+, has lost three electrons and only has 10.
✔ Thus, you should write the electron configuration for Al 3+ with 10
electrons 🡪 Al3+: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
✔ If the element is a cation (positive charge), you must subtract electrons from your
total
✔ If the element is an anion (negative charge), you must add electrons to your total
 Electron Configurations of Ions (Cont’d)

Q. Write the E.C of Fe3+

✔ The Fe atom has lost 3 electrons in this case
✔ Fe has an E.C of [Ar] 4s2 3d6
✔ Fe3+ has an E.C of [Ar] 3d5 because two electrons are lost from 4s
orbital and one electron is lost from 3d orbital

Electrons are removed from the valence shell 4s orbitals before they are
removed from valence 3d orbitals when transition metals are ionized
1.11 State the factors which influence the first
ionisation energy of elements
 Ionization Energy (I.E)
1st Ionization Energy of an element
Energy needed to convert 1 mole of its gaseous atoms into
gaseous ions with a single positive charge

Energy required to remove each successive electron is called the

2nd, 3rd, 4th, etc. ionization energy

Ionization energies are positive because it requires energy to

remove an electron
 Factors Influencing I.E

• The magnitude of I.E depends on how strongly the electron (to be

lost) is attracted to the nucleus

• Three factors influence the I.E (how easily the electron is lost):
1. Atomic Radii

2. Shielding (Screening by inner electrons)

3. Nuclear Charge
 1. Atomic Radii

• Atomic radius is generally stated as being the distance from an

atom’s nucleus to the outermost orbital of electron

• The I.E is influenced by the distance the outer electron is from the
nucleus

• As distance increases:
✔ nuclear attraction for the outer electron decreases
✔ ionization energy decreases
 Atomic radii (cont’d)

First Ionization Energies vs. Atomic Radii for selected elements

Element 1st I.E (kJ/mol) Atomic Radius (pm)

Cl 1255 99

B 800 85

Ga 578 135

Al 577 143

In 558 167
 2. Shielding (Screening by inner electrons)

Electrons experience repulsion by other electrons

✔ Outer electrons are shielded from the full attraction of the nucleus by the
repelling effect of inner electrons (screening effect)

✔ Screening effect of electrons in lower energy levels is more effective than

electrons in higher energy levels

✔ Electrons in same energy level have negligible screening effect on each

other

✔ As screening effect becomes more effective, ionization energy decreases

Shielding (Screening by inner electrons)
 3. Nuclear Charge
• The effective nuclear charge (zeff ) of an atom is the net positive
charge felt by the valence electron

• As Zeff increases:
✔attraction of the nucleus for the outer electron increases
✔ ionization energy increases
Atomic radii and Electron shielding (screening of inner e-) can outweigh the
effect of nuclear charge
⮚ For eg. Cs has a larger nuclear charge than Na but a lower first I.E (loses
electron more readily) than Na
⮚1st I.Ecaesium = 376 kJ/mol and 1st I.Esodium = 496 kJ/mol
 1.12 Explain how ionisation energy data provide evidence for
sub-shells

1.13 Derive the electronic configuration of an element from data

on successive ionisation energies
 Successive Ionization Energies

⚫ The energy involved in the removal of an electron successively from an

atom is called successive ionization energy.

⚫ It relates to the next ionization energies after you have removed the first
electron (2nd, 3rd, 4th IE etc.)

⚫ Unusually large increases in I. E occurs where all electrons in the outer

(valence) shell have been removed and are now being removed from an
inner shell

What do you expect to observe for the values of the successive I.E in an
atom?
 Successive I.E for Selected Elements

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 Evidence of Energy levels (Shells)

Successive Ionization Energies of Mg Successive ionization energies:

5.0 ✔ increases because inner electrons are
attracted more strongly to positively
4.5 charged nucleus
✔ provide evidence for the different energy
levels for example in Mg we see that there
log (IE)

4.0
are 3 energy levels
3.5

3.0

2.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
 Evidence of Energy levels (Shells)
Successive I.Es can be used to:
✔ identify the group the atom is in by the number of outer (valence) shell electrons
✔ determine the number of electron shells in the atom

Successive I.E for Chlorine

Successive Ionization Energies – Period 3

Element 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Group

Na 496 4562 6912 9543 13353 16610 1

P 1012 1903 2912 4956 6273 22233 5

?? 738 1451 7733 10540 13630 17995 ??

?? 787 1577 3231 4356 16091 19784 ??

 Variation of atomic radii & I.E. in Periodic
Atomic radii: Table
✔ decreases across a
period
✔ increases down a group

Ionization energy:
✔ increases across a
period
✔ decreases down a group

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 Variation of I.E across a period

I.E. Trends Across Period

✔ Atomic radii decreases
✔ Ionization energy increases

Anomalies
✔ 1st I.E. of boron is smaller than beryllium (similarly Al smaller than Mg)

✔ 1st I.E. of oxygen is smaller than nitrogen (similarly S smaller than P)

These anomalies provide evidence of sub-energy levels (Orbitals)

 I.E. Anomaly ( B < Be)
⮚ Less energy is required to remove
the first electron from the 2p orbital
in B than from the 2s orbital in Be

⮚ 2p electron is slightly more distant

from the nucleus than the 2s

⮚ 2p electron is partially screened by

the 2s electrons as well as the inner
electrons.

⮚ Both of these factors offset the effect

of the extra proton in boron
Be 1s22s2

B 1s2 2s22p1
 I.E. Anomaly ( O < N)
⮚ It requires less energy to remove a
paired electron with opposite spin

⮚ In nitrogen, the three electrons in the

2p orbitals have the same spin while
in oxygen the fourth 2p electron is
paired in one of the orbitals (2px)

⮚ The electron-electron repulsion of the

two electrons in the same orbital
(2px2) means that the electron would
be easier to remove, offsetting the
effect of the extra proton
N 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
O 1s2, 2s2, 2p4
Evidence of Sub-energy levels (Orbitals)