Soil Mechanics –I

CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Definition of Soil Mechanics

Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the
physical properties of soil and the behaviour of soil masses subjected to
various types of forces.

Soil engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to

practical problems.

Soil mechanics is the study of the response of soils to loads. These loads
may come from human-made structures (e.g., buildings), gravity (earth
pressures), and natural phenomena (e.g., earthquake).
Geotechnical engineering is the sub discipline of civil engineering that
involves natural materials found close to the surface of the earth.

It includes the application of the principles of soil mechanics and rock
mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures, and earth
structures

Geotechnical engineers are not the only professionals interested in the

ground; soil physicists, agricultural engineers, farmers and gardeners all
take an interest in the types of soil with which they are working.
These workers, however, concern themselves mostly with the organic
top soils found at the soil surface.

In contrast, geotechnical engineers are mainly interested in the

engineering soils found beneath the topsoil. It is the engineering
properties and behaviour of these soils which are their concern

Soils are natural, complex materials consisting of solids, liquids, and

gases.

To study soil behaviour, we have to couple concepts in solid mechanics

(e.g., statics) and fluid mechanics.
However, these mechanics are insufficient to obtain a complete
understanding of soil behaviour because of the uncertainties of
the applied loads, the vagaries of natural forces, and the
intricate, natural distribution of different soil types.

We have to utilize these mechanics with simplifying assumptions

and call on experience to make decisions (judgment) on soil
behaviour.
A good understanding of soil behaviour is necessary for us to
analyse and design support systems (foundations) for
infrastructures (e.g., roads and highways, pipelines, bridges,
tunnels, embankments), energy systems (e.g., hydroelectric
power stations, wind turbines, solar supports, geothermal and
nuclear plants) and environmental systems (e.g., solid waste
disposal, reservoirs, water treatment and water distribution
systems, flood protection systems).
The stability and life of any of these systems depend on the stability,
strength, and deformation of soils.

If the soil fails, these systems founded on or within it will fail or be
impaired, regardless of how well these systems are designed. Thus,
successful civil engineering projects are heavily dependent on our
understanding of soil behaviour.

The iconic structures shown in Figure 1 would not exist if soil

mechanics was not applied successfully
 The Willis Tower (formerly
named, and still commonly

Figure 1 referred to as the Sears

Willis tower Tower) is a 108-story, 1451-
(formerly the foot (442 m) skyscraper in
Sears Tower)
Chicago, Illinois.
in Chicago
At the time of its
completion in 1973, it was the
tallest building in the world,
surpassing the World Trade
Centre towers in New York,
and it held this rank for nearly
25 years.
For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the un cemented
aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter (solid
particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the
solid particles.

Soil is used as a construction material in various civil engineering

projects, and it supports structural foundations.

Thus, civil engineers must study the properties of soil, such as its
origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water,
compressibility, shear strength, and load-bearing capacity.
In general, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The physical Properties
of soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil
particles and, hence, the rock from which it is derived

The formation of various types of rocks, the origins of which are the
solidification of molten magma the mantle of the earth

Formation of soil by mechanical and chemical weathering of rock

 Determination of the distribution of particle sizes in a given soil mass

Composition of the clay minerals, which provides the plastic properties of a

soil mass
Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil

The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil aggregate
are the product of rock weathering.

The size of the individual grains varies over a wide range. Many
of the physical properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape,
and chemical composition of the grains.

To better understand these factors, one must be familiar with the
basic types of rock that form the earth’s crust, the rock-forming
minerals, and the weathering process.
On the basis of their mode of origin, rocks can be divided into three
basic types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Figure 1.2 shows
a diagram of the formation cycle of different types of rock and the
processes associated with them.

This is called the rock cycle. Brief discussions of each element of the
rock cycle follow.
Figure 1.2 Rock cycle
Clays and Their Behaviour

Clay needs special attention because of its small particle size. As

discussed in the grain size distribution section, soils with their particle
diameters less than 5 μm (2 μm in some classification systems) are
classified as clay or clay-size particles.

In such a small size, electrical interactive forces become more

significant as compared to the physical frictional interactive forces in
the case of larger grain soils (sand and gravel).
CLAY MINERALS

To understand various unique engineering behaviours of clay, it is most

beneficial to study microstructures of clay particles first.

The microstructural observation greatly helps to understand macro

behaviour. In nature, basically there are three types of clay minerals
namely, kaolinite clay, illite clay, and montmorillonite clay.

These clays have different atomic structures and behave differently and
are all made of two basic atomic sheets namely, silica tetrahedral sheets
and aluminum octahedron sheets, as seen in Figure 1.3
FIGURE 1.3 Silica and aluminium sheets.
Naturally abundant atom silica (Si) and aluminium atom (Al) occupy
the centre positions of the sheets, and oxygen atom (O2-) and hydroxyl
(OH-) are strongly bonded to those core atoms, respectively.

These bonds are either ionic or covalent, and actual bonds in silica and
aluminium sheets are combinations of these two types of bonds.

Note that the ionic bond is due to exchange of orbiting electrons of two
atoms such as Na+ (sodium ion) and Cl- (chlorine ion) to make NaCl
(sodium chloride = salt), and the covalent bond is due to sharing electrons
in their orbits such as two H+ (hydrogen ions) to form H2 (hydrogen gas).
FIGURE 1.4 Electron photomicrograph of kaolinite clay
FIGURE 1.5 Electron photomicrograph of montmorillonite clay
FIGURE 1.6 Electron photomicrograph of illite clay
FIELDS OF APPLICATION OF SOIL MECHANICS

• The knowledge of soil mechanics has application in many fields of Civil

Engineering.

Foundations

The loads from any structure have to be ultimately transmitted to a soil through
the foundation for the structure.

Thus, the foundation is an important part of a structure, the type and details of
which can be decided upon only with the knowledge and application of the
principles of soil mechanics.
Underground and Earth-retaining Structures

Underground structures such as drainage structures, pipe lines, and

tunnels and earth-retaining structures such as retaining walls and
bulkheads can be designed and constructed only by using the
principles of soil mechanics and the concept of ‘soil-structure
interaction’.
Pavement Design

Pavement Design may consist of the design of flexible or rigid

pavements. Flexible pavements depend more on the subgrade soil for
transmitting the traffic loads.

Problems peculiar to the design of pavements are the effect of

repetitive loading, swelling and shrinkage of sub-soil and frost action.

Consideration of these and other factors in the efficient design of a

pavement is a must and one cannot do without the knowledge of soil
mechanics.
Excavations, Embankments and Dams

• Excavations require the knowledge of slope stability analysis; deep excavations may
need temporary supports—‘timbering’ or ‘bracing’, the design of which requires
knowledge of soil mechanics.

• Likewise the construction of embankments and earth dams where soil itself is used as
the construction material, requires a thorough knowledge of the engineering
behaviour of soil especially in the presence of water.

• Knowledge of slope stability, effects of seepage, consolidation and consequent

settlement as well as compaction characteristics for achieving maximum unit weight of
the soil in-situ, is absolutely essential for efficient design and construction of
embankments and earth dams.
 Quiz-1
1.How soils are formed ?

2.Explain the difference between physical

and Chemical weathering

3.Explain Field identification of soils

4. What is Organic soil ?

1. Soils are formed through a process called weathering, which involves the breakdown of parent materials like rocks and
minerals. Weathering can occur through physical and chemical processes. Physical weathering involves the physical
breakdown of rocks into smaller particles through actions like freezing and thawing, abrasion, and plant root growth.
Chemical weathering involves chemical reactions that change the composition of rocks and minerals, often facilitated by
water and atmospheric gases. This can include processes like dissolution, oxidation, and hydrolysis. Over time, weathering
will continue to break down parent materials and combine with organic matter to form soils.

2. Physical weathering refers to the process of breaking down rocks into smaller particles without changing their chemical
composition. It involves physical forces and environmental factors like temperature changes, ice wedging, and wind
erosion. In contrast, chemical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions that result in the
alteration of their composition. This can occur through reactions with water, acids, and other chemical substances present
in the environment.

3. Field identification of soils involves examining various physical and chemical characteristics of a soil sample to determine
its properties. This is commonly done using a combination of visual observation and laboratory testing. Field identification
involves noting properties like color, texture, structure, moisture content, and presence of organic matter. These
observations can provide insights into the soil's composition, fertility, drainage, and other important characteristics.

• 4. Organic soil is a type of soil that has a high content of organic matter, which refers to the decomposed remains of
plants and animals. It is formed through the accumulation of organic matter over time, resulting in a soil with high
fertility and moisture-retaining capacity. Organic soils can be found in wetlands, peatlands, and areas with excessive
vegetation growth. They are often dark in color, have a spongy texture, and provide a rich habitat for various
microorganisms.