BFA 2208: Stock Assessment

and Fisheries Management

Ssempijja Drake
Department of Zoology, Entomology and
Fisheries Sciences
Makerere University
 Definitions
What is a fish?
A fish can be described as a poikilothermic aquatic
chordate with appendages (when present) developed as
fins, whose chief respiratory organs are gills and whose
body is usually covered with scales.
 Definitions
What is a fishery?
• A fishery is defined generically as a system composed
of three interacting components: the aquatic
organisms (e.g., Fish), the aquatic habitat, and the
human users of these renewable natural resources.

• Each of these components influences how the fishery

performs. Understanding the entire system and its
parts is essential to successful management of a
fishery.
 Definitions
Components of a fishery
- Population dynamics - Water • Sociology
Age and growth quality • Economics
Death rate quantity • Politics
Reproductive rate
- Physiology -Plants and their ecology
- Ecology
- Interactions - Physical substrate
quality
quantity

Organisms Habitat Humans

 Definitions
Fish population
A fish population is a group of individual fish of a
single interbreeding species located in a given area,
which could be as large as lake Victoria or as small as a
single fish pond.
 Definitions
Stock
• A fish stock is a group of fish of the same species in
a given area.

• Unlike a fish population, a stock is defined by

management concerns (such as jurisdictional
boundaries or harvesting location) not by biology.

• A fish stock may be only one population or may

encompass numerous populations.
 Definitions
Cohort
A cohort is a group of fish all born in the same year or
during the same period.

Within the Nile tilapia stock in Lake Victoria, all of the

tilapia born in April belong to one cohort and those
born in November comprise another cohort.
 Definitions
Year class
A year class is fish born in the same year. It may
consist of one or more cohorts.
 Background to Fisheries
• Fisheries are based on stocks of wild aquatic animals
living in their natural environment (Oceans, seas, lakes,
rivers, swamps)

• The fisheries depend entirely on the state of the fish

stocks

• Management of fisheries require scientific advice about

the state of the fish stocks

• Fisheries science is concerned with provision of this

advice
 Types of Fisheries
i) Subsistence (artisanal) - mostly for food

ii) Commercial fisheries – Food, aquarium

trade, foreign exchange

iii) Recreational fisheries – Food, sport,

aesthetics
 Common terminologies
• Underexploited:
Underexploited Undeveloped or new fishery.
Believed to have a significant potential for expansion
in total production;

• Moderately exploited:
exploited Exploited with a low level of
fishing effort. Believed to have some limited potential
for expansion in total production;

• Fully exploited:
exploited The fishery is operating at or close to
an optimal yield level, with no expected room for
further expansion;
• Overexploited:
Overexploited The fishery is being exploited at
above a level which is believed to be sustainable
in the long term, with no potential room for
further expansion and a higher risk of stock
depletion/collapse;

• Depleted:
Depleted Catches are well below historical
levels, irrespective of the amount of fishing effort
exerted;

• Recovering:
Recovering Catches are again increasing after
having been depleted
 What is fisheries management?
• Fisheries management is the manipulation of aquatic
organisms, their habitat and the human users of the
resources to ensure the attainment and continued
satisfaction of human needs for the present and future
generations in an environmentally non-degrading,
technically appropriate, economically viable, and
socially acceptable manner.

• The challenge for the fisheries manager is to translate

the manipulations into a practical, effective program
to maximize benefits of the specific fishery to society.
 Why manage a fishery?

1) Biological and conservation objectives

2) Economic objectives

3) Social objectives

4) Recreational objectives
 Why manage a fishery?
1) Biological and conservation objectives
• Determining the biomass and survival of fish in the cohort

• The biological objective of fisheries management is obtaining

MSY (achieving biological yield maximization).

• The standard indicator of biological yield is the annual weight

or number of fish caught.

• The conservation objective is resource sustainability (biological

and genetic diversity).
 Biological objective: Growth law and survival law

Growth Curve

Number or Weight

Survival Curve

Age
• The growth law shows the corresponding body weight
increases as the cohort ages. WHILE,
 The survival law demonstrates the decline in survival as a
function of the age of the cohort.
 Biological Objective: Biomass curve
X

Number or Weight

Age
• In the natural environment, the relationship of the two
laws can be shown as a biomass curve.
• The first half of the curve draws an exponential growth in total body weight of fish
and as maturity is reached the maximum biomass , and will be at Point X.

 Beyond this point little growth occurs and natural mortality

begins to set in.
 Why manage a fishery?
2) Economic objective
• Fisheries are an economic activity and thus should
aim for economic rent or profit maximization (i.e.,
the maximization of total revenue minus the total
costs).

• The concept of maximum economic rent (MER) is an

economic analogue to MSY.

• The MER level is defined as the point on the revenue

curve where the difference between the total costs
of fishing and revenues is greatest.
Why manage a fishery?
 Why manage a fishery?
3) Social objective
• Social objectives are concerned with employment and equity.

• Fisheries are not only about landing fish and making money
out of it, but also about employing people and making sure
that those involved in the fishery make a living that is
adequate and sustainable.

• Communities that have been fishing for a few hundred years

and hold traditional fishing rights, must be taken into
consideration as part of fisheries management.
 Why manage a fishery?
4) Recreational objectives
• For recreational purposes, both the catch and the
effort (number of successful fishing trips) are
important objectives.

• The standard indicators for recreational fisheries

are: the estimated total value of recreational
effort (dollars per day X days fished), and the
number and size of the recreational catch.
 How do fisheries managers determine which
combinations of tools will best accomplish their
goals/objectives?

• To choose the best approach for managing a

fish stock, managers must equip themselves
with as much information on the fishery as
possible.

• Stock assessment provides fisheries managers/

decision makers with much of the information
necessary to make appropriate choices.
 Major information needed for
fisheries resource management
• Biological Information
• Technical Information
• Economic Information
• Social Information
• Institutional Information

Information mentioned above is obtained from

many sources such as universities, extension
agents and so on.
 History of fisheries management
• Fish have occupied an important place in
human society for thousands of years.

• Archeological records document use of fish

spears - 90,000 BP , nets - 40,000 BP, and fish
hooks - 35,000 BP.

• The earliest documented human communities

dependent on fishing occurred in the vicinity of
Lake Mungo (Australia) about 30,000 BP.
 History of fisheries management
• In the Middle Ages, with the development of better
preservation techniques (e.g., drying, smoking, and
salting) and improved transportation, fishing began
shifting from local, small-scale activities to commercial,
large-scale enterprises.

• Boat design and construction advanced, along with

corresponding improvements in fishing gear and
preservation techniques, especially the advent of
canning.

• Canning represented a particularly important

advancement because it permitted long-term storage
and large-scale distribution of fish products.
 History of fisheries management
Prior to the 1800s - concept of unlimited fisheries
resources
• Most people presumed that fisheries resources were
inexhaustible given the level of harvest possible by the
modest number of people who fished and the limited
effectiveness of their fishing gear.
• This was further complicated by the Concept of
Common Property - resources are owned by the entire
populace without restrictions on who can use them and
how. This only works in a situation where supply
exceeds demand.
• This led to the Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin
1968). Fishers were compelled to harvest as many fish
as possible, because the benefit is direct and unshared,
BUT the costs are shared.
 History of fisheries management
Mid 1800s – Aquaculture
• The idea of unlimited natural fisheries resources
was no longer credible.

• Conventional wisdom held that aquaculture could

produce a nearly unlimited supply of fish of
superior quality and according to a predictable
schedule.

• It was therefore thought that fish could be raised

on a high quality diet, protected from predation,
and the quality of the product improved by
selective breeding.
 History of fisheries management
Mid 1800s – Aquaculture
• If aquaculture performed as hoped, fisheries
managers would no longer depend on the
limited natural environment for fish products.

• But the expectation that aquaculture would be

a solution to natural limitations was not fully
realized.
 History of fisheries management
Mid 1900’s - Maximum Sustainable Yield
• The maximum harvest level that a population can
sustain based on the natural dynamics of the
population.

• By the early 1900s, scientific fisheries management

was the dominant paradigm.

• The idea underlying this approach was that every

fish population has the potential to produce a
harvestable surplus and the largest surplus that
could be harvested annually from that population
(i.e., maximum sustainable yield -MSY) could be
estimated by rigorous scientific analysis (i.e., stock
assessment).
 History of fisheries management
Mid 1900’s - Maximum Sustainable Yield
• The job of the fisheries manager at the time was to
control fishing pressure, using various regulations, at a
level such that sustainable catch levels could be
achieved in perpetuity.

• However, fishing pressure, as always, was very difficult

to control; many fisheries ended up being over-
harvested and yields eventually declined.
History of fisheries management
 History of fisheries management
Assumptions of MSY
• In absence of harvest, populations grow to an equilibrium
population size.

• Fish populations exhibit high natural mortality rates,

especially at high densities.

• If populations are below carrying capacity, then density-

dependent mortality decreases, leading to an increase in
population growth rates.

• Therefore, a certain amount of the population can be

harvested without affecting the population over a long term.
 History of fisheries management
Why did MSY fail?
• Recruitment and natural mortality in fish
populations are extremely variable and are
characterized by occasional recruitment failures
(“year class phenomenon”).

• MSY assumes that environmental factors do

not influence recruitment and survival, only
density affects these population attributes.
 History of fisheries management
Why did MSY fail?
• MSY requires fast action
a) detection of MSY quickly after passing this point
(i.e., a good monitoring and data acquisition system
should be in place)

b) there should be mechanisms in place from the

onset of exploitation , to reduce effort effectively
without detrimental effects
 History of fisheries management
Late 1900s and Early 2000’s – Modern Fisheries
management and Ecosystem management
• There was widespread recognition that some aquatic species
were at risk of extinction and this led to public pressure to
reverse such trends.

• The main causes of the decline of fish species were habitat

alteration and introduction of non-native fish species. Only
rarely was over-fishing the primary cause declines in fish
abundance.

• The objective of modern fisheries management is the

protection, maintenance, and rehabilitation of fish and their
habitat to ensure ecosystem sustainability.
 History of fisheries management
Late 1900s and Early 2000’s – Modern Fisheries
management and Ecosystem management

Principles of Ecosystem Protection

• The sustainability of fish stocks requires protection
of the specific physical and chemical habitat
utilized by members of that stock.

• The sustainability of a fish stock requires the

maintenance of its supporting community.
 STOCK ASSESSMENT
• “Stock assessment involves the use of various
statistical and mathematical calculations to
make quantitative predictions about the
reactions of fish populations to alternative
management choices.” Hilborn and Walters
(1992)

• The objective is to provide advice to

management about choices.
 Stock assessment (Alternate definition)
• Is an evaluation of the past, present and future status of the
stock that includes a range of life history characteristics for
a species, such as information on:
 Age
 Growth
 Natural mortality
 Sexual maturity
 Reproduction
 Habitat preferences
 Fisheries pressures affecting the species.
 Fish Stock Assessment
• Makes use of diverse types of information to give
managers advice about the status of a fishery and the
possible outcomes of management actions.

• This information includes:

- Resource abundance (whether the stock is depleted
or close to its maximum biomass).
- Important aspects of fish population dynamics (e.g.,
current levels of mortality, expected levels of future
recruitment, likely changes in catch per unit effort).
 Fish Stock Assessment
• One of the most important roles of stock assessment is
to understand the dynamics of fisheries.

• This is because biological resources, fishermen and the

environment are dynamic (changing), not static.

• Fisheries will respond dynamically over time to

management actions and to external factors such as
environmental forces.

• Understanding these dynamics is the ultimate role of

stock assessment.
A fishery stock assessment:
1) Asks questions such as: How big is the stock? Is it
growing in size or shrinking?

2) Attempts to make predictions about how the

stock will respond to current and future
management options. Will a slight increase in
fishing pressure have a negative effect on the
stock next year? Ten years from now?
• Stock assessments often track a cohort over time.

• Short-term increases or decreases in the size of a

particular stock can sometimes be explained by the
existence of an exceptionally large or small cohort.

• The mathematical and statistical techniques used to

perform a stock assessment are referred to as the
Stock Assessment Models.
 Role of stock assessment in fisheries
management
• To provide what is in the resource envelope (How
much fish is available, composition, distribution, and
population structure)

• To provide estimates of the state of the stock (size,

composition, regeneration rate, exploitation level,
and fishing pattern) to assure, in the long run, the
self-sustainability of the stock under exploitation

• How much is being harvested using which type of

gears
 Role of Fish Stock Assessment
• To provide advice on optimum exploitation of a fishery

• To predict consequences of various levels of fishing effort

on yield and biomass

• The ultimate aim is to provide biological and economic

reference points to be used as guidelines for the rational
management of the fishery.
The Role of Stock Assessment in Fishery Management

Fishing activity

Data Stock Advice

collection Assess. (SAG)

Fish stock
Policy
Regulations Formulation
(SAC)
Source:www.fao.org
45
 The fish stock assessment process
• Fish stock assessment aims at describing the link between
input and output using models.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
(observation) (model) (observation)

• Biological and technical data on the fisheries are required

• These data are obtained by sampling the catches of commercial

fisheries and research fishing surveys

• Fishery survey data are processed together to provide managers

and policy makers with advice on exploitation/utilisation of
aquatic resources.
 Data commonly used in Stock
•
Assessment
Catch, effort and abundance
– Use catch data to examine fishery ‘phase’, increasing or
decreasing?
– Use CPUE or other abundance estimate as index of stock
size (explain why catches are increasing or decreasing), and as
input to biomass dynamic models

• Catch composition (Age frequency / length frequency)

– Used to estimate (growth and) mortality rate as the indicator of
fishing pressure
– Intensive sampling also allows construction of a stock-
recruitment relationship based on VPA methods (used to avoid
recruitment overfishing)
– Can also estimate size-selectivity of gears – important for setting
mesh size rules
 – Age frequencies better if fish can be aged – gives better
estimates of growth and mortality rates
– Note catches may also need to be subdivided by species, in a
multi-species or ecosystem management situation

•Biological data
– Analytical models also need inputs on size at maturity,
fecundity at size, weight at length
– Information on seasonality of spawning, feeding, growth and
recruitment can also be useful for guiding the use of closed
seasons in the fishery
 How the data is collected
• Data used in stock assessments can be categorized as either
fishery-dependent or fishery independent.

• Fishery-dependent data are derived from the fishing

process itself and are collected through such avenues as:

 Self-reporting (fishers)
 On board observers
 Portside surveys/ sampling
 Telephone surveys or vessel-monitoring systems.
 Log Books and Vessel Trip Reports
• Fishery-independent data are derived from activities that
do not involve the commercial or recreational harvest of
fish, such as:

 Trawl, acoustic, video and side-scan sonar research

surveys
 Some tagging experiments.

• Stock assessments generally require data on catch,

relative abundance and the life history of the species in
question.

• Both fishery-dependent and fishery independent data can

help fulfil these needs.
 What is a model?

A model is defined as a simplified

representation of a process or a
system.
 Why model fish populations?
1) Modeling allows fisheries scientists and
managers to explore the potential risks and
rewards of management options quickly and
efficiently.

2) Modeling allows the analyst to communicate

predicted effects of any management
decision, which can ultimately be used in the
final decision making process.
 Why model fish populations?
3) Models also allow analysts to evaluate the
effects of uncertainty on any potential
decisions, to explore trade-offs among
multiple objectives, or to help design or refine
data collection efforts
 Fish population dynamics
• To put fish population dynamics into perspective a
fish stock has to be seen as a simple biological
system.

• The essential aspect is that stock biomass has

gains (recruitment and growth) and losses (fishing
and natural mortality)

• The biomass of a stock is increased by growth of

individuals
 Fish Population Dynamics

Growth (G) Natural(M)

Stock

Recruitment (R) Fishing(F)

Fish Population Dynamics
Fish population dynamics
 Fish Population Dynamics

• Three dynamic functions govern fish populations

(recruitment, growth, and mortality).

• After hatching in the wild, fish must grow to recruit to

an adult size or a size that is desired for capture.

• Fish mortality can divided into two sources, fishing and

natural.
 Fish Population Dynamics
•Fishing mortality includes consumptive harvest as well as
tournament mortality.

• Natural mortality occurs due to old age, diseases,

parasites, or predation.

•Self sustained populations typically remain in a state of

dynamic equilibrium.

•As fish die or are removed from a population, new

recruits enter the fishery.
 Fish Population Dynamics

• The major task of fisheries biologist is to estimate various

population parameters e.g., stock abundance, growth,
recruitment & mortality.
POPULATION GROWTH
 Population growth
• Population dynamics describes the ways in which a
given population grows and shrinks over time [i.e.,
how the number of individuals in a population
increases or decreases with time (N, t)]

• It is controlled by birth, death, and migration

(emigration and immigration).

• The population dynamics of fisheries is used to

determine SUSTAINABLE YIELDS/HARVESTS.
 Population growth
• The basic model for population dynamics is the BIDE
(Birth, Immigration, Death, Emigration)
N1 = N0 + B − D + I − E
Where:
N1 is the number of individuals at time 1,
N0 is the number of individuals at time 0,
B is the number of individuals born,
D the number that died, I the number that immigrated,
and
E the number that emigrated between time 0 & time 1.
 Population growth
• While immigration and emigration can be present in
wild fisheries, they are usually not measured.

• Population growth therefore usually reflects differences

between birth rate and death rate.

• In a popn., if more births occur than do deaths, then the

population increases and vice-versa.
 Population growth
Change in pop size = births during – deaths during
during time interval time interval time interval

If N represents popn size and t represents time then ΔN is the

change in popn size and Δt is the time interval

So, the equation:

ΔN = b-d
Δt

B - the number of births in population

D - the number of deaths in population
 Population growth
• Let r = b - d

• Then, the equation for population growth,

dN/dt = rN

The rate of change of population (dN/dt) is a

function of r (rate of increase and decrease) and
the population size (N).
Finite and Instantaneous growth rates
• Finite rates of growth are used for estimating populations
with non-overlapping generations & (breeding generation
lasts just one breeding season)

• All of the individuals of the parental generation are dead

before the next generation begins to grow.

• Instantaneous rates of growth are appropriate for

populations that have overlapping generations (reproduce
over multiple breeding seasons).
Finite and Instantaneous growth rates
• Finite rates can be converted into instantaneous rates
and vice-versa.
Finite rate = einstantaneous rate
where e = the natural logarithm (2.71828)

• Using the symbol  (lambda) to represent finite rates

and r to represent instantaneous rates.

• The above equation can be written as:

 = er or r = ln
Types of population growth models
 1. Geometric Growth
• When generations do not overlap, growth can be
modeled geometrically.
• It is therefore a finite rate.
• Geometric rate of population increase is given by the
equation
Nt = Noλt

– Nt = Number of individuals at time t.

– No = Initial number of individuals.
– λ = Geometric rate of increase.
– t = Number of time intervals or generations.
 Geometric Growth
The equation can be written to give population size
at any time period:
Nt+1 = Nt
Nt+1 = Number of individuals at time t+1
Nt = Number of individuals at time t.
λ = Geometric rate of increase.

This equation tells us to multiply the population size by

the finite growth rate to get the population size in the
next time period.
 2. Exponential Growth model
• Continuous population growth in an unlimited, constant,
and favorable environment can be modeled
exponentially.

• Appropriate for populations with overlapping

generations.
 2. Exponential Growth
There are three situations in nature where
exponential growth may occur:
1) Where a fish population has been introduced by man into (or has
naturally colonized) a new area.

2) Where a fish population has been greatly depressed by man’s

activities and such activities cease.

3) Where a fish population naturally undergoes marked fluctuations

and population growth consequently begins from densities that
are very low relative to environmental carrying capacity.
 Exponential Growth
• Continuous population growth in an unlimited
environment can be modeled exponentially.

dN / dt = rN

• Appropriate for populations with overlapping

generations.
– As population size (N) increases, rate of population
increase (dN/dt) gets larger.
 2. Exponential Growth
• For an exponentially growing population, size at any time
can be calculated as:

dN/dt = rN
where;
dN/dt = change in population size with
change in time;
r = the instantaneous growth rate.

• As population size (N) increases, rate of population increase

(dN/dt) gets larger.
 2. Exponential Growth
• From the discussion of finite rates above, we know
that = er. We can replace  in equation above with
er.
Nt = N0ert
Nt = number individuals at time t;
N0 = initial number of individuals;
e = natural logarithm;
r = per capita rate of increase;
t = number of time intervals.
 2. Exponential Growth
Do populations grow exponentially?
• They do for short periods but cannot grow exponentially for
very long.

• A point is reached when the population stops increasing,

either because a greater density of individuals leads to
greater mortality,
or
• Because of a decreased birth rate, or because conditions are
no longer favorable.
 3. Logistic Population Growth model
• The simplest model derived from the exponential growth model
to include the density dependent effects is the logistic model of
growth.

• As resources are depleted, population growth rate slows down

and eventually levels off (stops).

• This pattern is logistic growth that results in Sigmoid (S-shaped)

population growth curve.

• The maximum number of individuals that an environment can

hold under a given condition is the carrying capacity (K).
 Logistic Population Growth
• As resources are depleted, population growth rate slows
and eventually stops, this is called logistic population
growth

– Sigmoid (S-shaped) pop. growth curve.

– Carrying capacity (K) is the number of individuals of a
population the environment can support.
• A finite amount of resources can only support a
finite number of individuals.
N=K/2
 3. Logistic Population Growth
• The carrying capacity is determined by factors
such as the amount of food, parasitism, disease,
predation, available space , etc.

• Theoretically, the population size (N) cannot

be greater than K because there will be
insufficient food, space, etc.
 3. Logistic growth Equation
• As discussed earlier, the equation for
exponential growth is dN/dt = rN
• We need to add a term to this equation so that
at low population densities, growth is
exponential but at high densities (the carrying
capacity), it is zero.
K-N
K
• The term is known as a slowing factor that
reduces population growth to zero as N
approaches K.
 3. Logistic growth Equation

• When a population is very small (2-4 individuals)

and far from its carrying capacity, it will grow
exponentially and growth slows down as N
approaches K.
 3. Logistic growth Equation
If K-N
K
is multiplied by the equation for exponential
growth, then

• The value of r used in this equation is the

intrinsic rate of increase (maximum growth
rate that the population can achieve under
optimal conditions).
 3. Logistic growth Equation
• The logistic equation can be rearranged to
produce the following:
 3. Logistic growth Equation
• The term N/K is the environmental resistance.

• As N increases, r decreases. At the carrying

capacity (K), r = 0.

• Above the carrying capacity, r becomes negative

and below the carrying capacity r is positive.
 Regulation of population growth
• Environmental factors that limit population growth can
be grouped into two categories.
i) Density-dependent factors are more important at
higher densities than at low densities.
• These are typically biotic factors such as disease,
predation, parasitism, competition for limited resources,
etc.

• These are the factors that determine the carrying

capacity of the environment.
 Regulation of population growth
ii) Density-independent factors exert their influence
independent of the population size.

• These are often abiotic factors such as natural

disasters (floods, earth quake) and climate (drought,
extreme temperatures, etc.)

• These factors will temporarily stop exponential

growth but they will not prevent it from occurring at
high densities.
 RECRUITMENT

Natural(M)
Stock

Recruitment (R) Fishing(F)

 RECRUITMENT
Definitions:
1. Recruitment is the addition of new individuals
through reproduction and growth.

2. Recruitment is the process of becoming catchable

(the moment or interval during which an individual
fish becomes vulnerable to the fishing gear in use).
 RECRUITMENT
 Recruitment success accomplished by a fish stock
can be assessed at any stage (eggs, larvae, fry,
juveniles etc.)

 Of most interest in practical fishery work is the

number of recruits into the usable stock.

 Recruitment of young fish into catchable,

harvestable, or adult size is necessary to sustain any
capture or recreational fishery if supplemental
stocking does not take place.
 RECRUITMENT
 Recruitment failure, due either to over fishing,
habitat alteration, or major abiotic events will
ultimately lead to reduced adult abundance and lower
catch rates in the fishery.

 Conversely, if reproduction is high, density-

dependent mortality is not excessive, and growth
rates remain adequate to permit recruitment into the
fishery, then adult abundance will increase and fishing
success will be greater.
 RECRUITMENT
 Recruitment success typically varies from year to
year.

 Some species from certain populations may display

fairly constant recruitment each year,

 Whereas other species or populations have highly

erratic recruitment that may cause wide fluctuations
in the number of fish reaching a certain age.
 TYPES OF RECRUITMENT
3 types of recruitment can be distinguished
1) Knife-edge recruitment – All fish of a given age
become vulnerable at a particular time in a
given year.
Few fish populations approximate to this type
of recruitment e.g., Salmonid stocks coming
back from a river (migration).
 TYPES OF RECRUITMENT
2) Recruitment by platoons – Vulnerability of a year class
increases gradually over a period of 2 or more years.
Thus a year class is divided into 2 platoons: recruited
and not recruited.

Fish in the recruited platoon are, on average, larger

than the unrecruited ones but there is often a broad
overlap of sizes

Example: Platoon recruitment happens when fishing

attacks a population during migration or when non-
maturing fish do not mingle with the maturing ones.
 TYPES OF RECRUITMENT
3) Continuous recruitment – There is a gradual increase in
vulnerability of members of a year class over a period
of two or more years, related to the increase in size of
individual fish or change distribution.

Commonest type of recruitment.

Each fish becomes more and more likely to be caught

as it grows larger and older.
 Biological and environmental factors
that affect recruitment
1) Predation
2) Competition
3) Habitat (temperature, salinity, quality of spawning
ground)
4) Anthropogenic disturbances (deforestation, habitat
degradation, pollution)
5) Spawning (parental) stock abundance
 Types of Stock-Recruitment
relationships
1. Density independent S-R relationship
The simplest assumption is that a certain number of
eggs are produced per unit of STOCK;

Eggs have a certain probability of surviving, but this is

related to the environment, BUT NOT to either the
stock size or the number of eggs produced

This is commonly observed in marine stocks.

 Types of Stock-Recruitment
relationships
2. Density Compensation S-R relationship
This assumes that resources become limiting,
so that at high levels of STOCK abundance, the
recruits (R) don’t do as well as they would when
STOCK abundance is low.
 Types of Stock-Recruitment
relationships
3. Overcompensation S-R relationship
In overcompensation, recruitment of the whole
population decreases when STOCK gets very
large.
 Types of Stock-Recruitment
relationships
Some biological reasons for overcompensation S-R
relationship:

• Cannibalism by adults or larger juveniles (codfish)

• Crowding – competition for food
• Disease outbreaks
• Depletion of the oxygen in the habitats
• Other limiting resources (e.g., larval food)
AGE AND GROWTH
 Fish Age and growth
• Age and growth studies are fundamental in
stock assessment as the production from a fish
stock is a function of the recruitment of new
individuals and the growth of the existing
individuals in the population.

• Growth is a combination of population growth

(change in biomass due to change in numbers
from recruitment and mortality) and individual
growth (increase in length and weight).

• The growth of a population or an individual is

often represented by mathematical models
describing the average change per unit of time.
 Fish Age and growth
• Age refers to a description of how long an
organism has lived.

• Growth refers to a change in some metric of

fish size between two points in time.
- Increase in Length
- Increase in weight (BIOMASS)
- Increase in energy content (calories)
- Increase in reproductive tissue and
gametes
• Both Age & Growth can be described over a
range of temporal scales from hours to days to
years.
 Fish Age and growth
• Growth models need age as an input data but
the determination of growth of a single fish is of
little use.

• What is needed is some measure of mean size

at age and a method of modelling or estimating
the average growth rate of a species or
particular stock.

• Fish generally grow in size throughout their life

towards an asymptotic length (i.e., indefinite or
indeterminate growth but with continuously
decreasing rates with age).
 Fish Age and growth
• Several models have been formulated to
express fish growth but the most accepted and
applied is the von Bertalanffy growth curves
(VBGF) introduced by Beverton and Holt (1957).
 Why age and growth?
• Growth provides an integrated measure of
environmental conditions such as
Temperature, water chemistry, and
endogenous conditions (e.g. genetics)
affecting a fish.

• Growth can therefore be used as an indicator

of quality and quantity of habitat, food
availability, or the need for management
actions.
 Age & growth data requirements
• Generally the data consists of measurements
of age, size (length and weight).

• When a fish is caught, it is first measured for

length and/or weight and then commonly its
otoliths are removed (how they are removed
varies from species to species, and this can
be a highly skilled art)

• The otoliths are then used to age the fish by

counting the number of annuli (rings).
 Age & growth data requirements
• Obtaining age data can be problematic (in temperate
waters, ageing fish is less complicated as year rings
can be counted on hard parts of the fish, such as
otoliths and scales).

• These rings are formed due to strong environmental

fluctuations (summer to winter and vice versa).

• Such strong environmental conditions are less

pronounced in the tropics therefore it becomes very
difficult to use seasonal rings for age determination.
 Age & growth data requirements
• The methods available for ageing tropical fish are
normally too expensive.

• Length measurements of fish have been used to

estimate age compositions through length-
frequency analysis for most tropical species.

• When applied with caution, these methods can give

similar estimates as obtained by other techniques
although uncertainties are higher.
• Lengths are easily measured accurately than
weight; hence most of the methods are length-
based.
 How are fish aged?

Three approaches:

1)Direct observations of individual fish, either held

in confinement.
OR
• From marking/recapture experiments.

• Size at release is related to size at recapture and

time at between
 Three approaches to ageing
2) Identification of cohorts based on length
frequency distributions from one or several
samples representing a wide range of the
Population.
 2. Length frequency analysis
• When a large unbiased sample is taken
from a fish stock, lengths of individuals may
be plotted manually as a length frequency
histogram or using computer programs such
as ELEFAN, FISAT & MULTIFAN.

• If a popn. spawns once a year over a relatively

short time period, it is possible to attribute
approx. ages to various “peaks” or modes in l-
f
graph.
Length frequency
 Three approaches to ageing
3) Ageing of individual fish based on annual
patterns in hard structures e.g., otoliths, scales,
Spines, vertebrae etc.
Otoliths

15 mm – Age0

76 mm – Age1

123 mm – Age2
 Otoliths and Ageing:
Tilapia aged using the sagittal otoliths, which are
located directly behind their brain.
Processing Tilapia Otoliths for Aging

Fish are aged by:

• removing the otoliths
• sectioning the otoliths into
thin slices
• examining them under a
low-power microscope
• counting the rings, to give
the age of the fish, usually in
years
Ageing Tilapia
 Age validation
1) Purpose
• Checking the accuracy (trueness of the value) of
the aging method and;

• Precision (reliability, consistency) of the aging

method

• Knowing whether one annulus is laid down each

year, or two of them
 Age validation
2) Primary validation methods

A) Length frequency

B) Marginal Increment Analysis

C) Chemical marking
 Age validation
A) Length frequency

• Match up age class peaks with the ages estimated

from the hard structure

• You must have all ages and modes must be

distinct.
 Age validation
B) Marginal Increment Analysis

• Measure the relative growth increments at the edge

• Index of completion = growth increment between ultimate

annulus and edge/growth increment between ultimate and
penultimate annulus
• Zero = annulus has just formed

Small value = small amount of growth past the annulus

Large value = large amount of growth past the annulus

Plot these values for a year

 Validation of the periodicity and timing of
opaque zone formation within T. zillii
otoliths

Marginal-increment Analysis (MIA)

Index of completion = MI/PI*100

 i) Index of completion

60

Index of completion (%)

Bimodal pattern, 47
with the highest 30
percentage of
opaque zones at 40 47 26
11
otolith edges 12
37
occurring between
September and 68 32
20 38 32 22
November and
between March and
May.
0

2005 Months 2006

 Part III – validation results
Marginal Increment Analysis

Mean monthly rainfall (mm)

100 100
(%))
Opaque zone (%

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0

2005 Months 2006

 Age validation
C) Chemical marking
• In the wild – capture a fish, mark it, recapture it a
number of years later, remove the otolith and
section
• In captivity, sacrifice the fish one year later,
remove the otoliths and section
Marking:
• Use fluorescent chemical such as Oxytetracycline
(OTC) or calcein
• Chemical goes into the otolith structure or matrix
of the otolith – leaves a mark which fluoresces
 Age validation
C) Chemical marking
Analysis:
• Determine the number of annuli laid down
after the chemical mark

• Compare to the number of years at large

Aging of fish is an important aspect of
fisheries management….one that is
probably under-emphasized…
• Aging is also an art (as you will see).

• When starting to age fish you should look at

small individuals first to get an idea of what
age-0’s look like.

• You need to review your age estimation after

the first 100 fish or so and probably have a
2nd reader.
 Reporting fish growth
Fish growth is usually reported by using age and
growth curves (models)

3 main types of growth models

1) Linear
2) Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF)
3) Gompertz (??)
 Reporting fish growth
1) Linear – size increases almost linearly with
age.
There are 3 types
i) Absolute growth rate
ii) Relative growth rate
iii ) Specific growth rate
 Linear growth model
i) Absolute growth rate
= (Lt – Li )/t
Day Length Weight
(cm) (g) Where; Lt - length at time t
0 13.7 23 (final length)
Li - initial length
28 22.4 104
Absolute increase in length from
Day 0 to day 112 is:
56 25.6 153

84 27.6 186 (28.4 – 13.7)/112d = 0.13cm/d

112 28.4 208 * Intermediate points are ignored

 Linear growth model
ii) Relative growth rate – reported
as percent increase in length (or
Day Length Weight weight)
= (Lt – Li )/ Li * 100
(cm) (g)
0 13.7 23 Where; Lt - length at time t
(final length)
28 22.4 104
Li - initial length
56 25.6 153 Relative growth rate in length from
Day 0 to day 112 is:
84 27.6 186 (28.4 – 13.7)/13.7*100
=107.3%/112 days
112 28.4 208
* Restricted to time period for which
it was computed
 Linear growth model
iii) Specific growth rate (G) – useful
for reporting the growth of small
fish
Day Length Weight Also known as exponential or
(cm) (g) logarithmic
wt = wieGT
0 13.7 23
G = (ln(wt) – ln(wi ))/t
28 22.4 104 Where; lnwt - natural log of weight
at time t
lnwi – natural log of initial
56 25.6 153 weight
Aquaculturalists typically multiply G
84 27.6 186 by 100 to express it in %/d

112 28.4 208 G = (ln(203) – ln(23))/112*100

= 1.94%/d
 Linear growth model
iii) Specific growth rate (G)
Problems:
- Assumes fish weight increases exponentially. This
assumption is only valid for young fish cultured for
a short period but is not valid for larger fish or
longer culture periods
 Reporting fish growth
2) Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF)
• Most common growth function used in fisheries
biology
• Used for fish with indeterminate growth
• Increase in size with age but at a decreasing rate
and then approaches asymptotic size (non-linear)
• parameters from von Bertalanffy model are used in
many fishery yield models (to predict response to
harvest)
• VBGF has two simple forms, one for length and the
other for weight
 Reporting fish growth
2) Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF)
The simple VBGF equations are:
Lt = L{1-e[-K(t-to)]}
Wt =W {1-e[-K(t-to)]}b
Where; Lt and Wt are length and weight at time t
L and W are asymptotic length and weight
K is growth coefficient (rate at which growth
approaches L and W
to is hypothetical time when length and
weight equals zero (It is a scaling constant that
sets the origin of the curve)
b is the exponent of the length-weight
relationship of the form W = aLb
von Bertalanffy model
Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF)
Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF)
Von Bertalanffy Growth Function (VBGF)
 Reporting fish growth
3) Gompertz growth model

Read and make note on the use of this

model in fisheries (1/2 a page is sufficient)
 Fish Condition
Definition:
• Generically described as the well-being or
robustness of an individual fish

• Measures of condition are intended to be an

indicator of tissue energy reserves, with the
expectation that a fish in relatively good condition
should demonstrate higher growth rates, greater
reproductive potential and higher survival than a
lower conditioned counterpart, given comparable
environmental conditions.
Relationship between fish weight and length
Relationship between fish weight and length
 Condition Indices
1)Fulton condition factor
K = (W/L3)*100
where; W is the weight
L is length,
100 as a scaling constant.
• assumes isometric growth (b = 3) or growth without
changes in body proportions, resulting in condition
factors that are often length- and species-dependent

• However, body form changes with length (b > 3) and

species, thus K increases with increasing length.

• This limits its application to fish of similar length

within the same species.
 Condition Indices
2) Relative condition factor (Kn)
• Le Cren (1951) attempted to solve the deficiencies of
K by comparing the actual weight to a standard
weight predicted by the weight-length regression
based on the population from which the fish was
sampled.

Relative condition (Kn) = W/W’

where; W is individual fish weight
W’ is the predicted length-specific
weight (aLb)
• When Kn =1.0 then your fish is of average condition

• More useful for relative comparisons

 Condition Indices
3) Relative weight

• Relative weight (Wr) is the increasingly accepted state-

of-the-science condition assessment tool

• Allows comparisons of condition across the geographical

occurrence of a species, as well as among species.
Wr = Wobs./Ws *100

• Where; W is individual fish weight

Ws is a length-specific standard weight
predicted from a weight-length regression
developed to represent the body form of
the species across its geographical range.
 Condition Indices
3) Relative weight

• The relative weight index uses 1.0 as a benchmark for

a fish in good condition

• Fishes above or below 1.0 are considered in relatively

better or worse condition than a standard fish,
respectively.

• Fish conditions exceeding 1.0 may indicate abundant

prey and favorable environmental
conditions
Computation of length-weight relationship
(Condition).
• Fish weight increases exponentially as length increases
resulting in a non-linear relation described by:

Where; W = weight, usually in grams;

L = length , usually in mm and typically is
expressed as total length (TL).
a = is the intercept
b = is the slope of the weight-length
regression
• In the majority of populations, b ranges from about 2.5
to 3.5.
Computation of length-weight relationship
(Condition).
• To simplify the computation of the
weight:length relation, common log or log10
transformation of the raw weight and length
data is performed.

• This linearizes the relation to:

log10(W) = a + b* log10(L)
Computation of length-weight relationship
(Condition).
• To simplify the computation of the
weight:length relation, common log or log10
transformation of the raw weight and length
data is performed.

• This linearizes the relation to:

log10(W) = a + b* log10(L)
• Note that the intercept (a) is the linearized
form of a from the non-linear equation.
Computation of length-weight relationship
(Condition).
• Example1:
Given the weight-length relationship
Log10(W) = -5.728 + 3.370*Log10(L)

Convert this linear equation to the non-linear

form
Computation of length-weight relationship
(Condition).
Solution:
Compute antilog of -5.728 = 0.000001871
Non-linear form of weight-length equation is:

W = 0.000001871(L 3.370)

• Many of the modeling programs use the non-

linear form for describing the weight:length
relationship.
A typical weight : length relation is illustrated below.
Computation of length-weight relationship
(Condition).
• Example2:
Given the weight-length relationship
Log10(W) = -5.728 + 3.370*Log10(L)

i) What is the weight of a fish that has a total

length of 150 mm?
ii) What is the length of a fish that weighs 264
g?
Solutions:
i) From W = aLb
= 0.000001871 (150 3.370)
= 0.000001871*21549021
= 40.31822 g
ii)From Log10(W) = -5.728 + 3.370*Log10(L)
Log10(264) = -5.728 + 3.370*Log10(L)
2.421604 = -5.728 + 3.370*Log10(L)
2.421604+5.728 = 3.370*Log10(L)
8.1496/3.370 = Log10(L)
2.4183 = Log10(L) = 262 mm.