Forest Resources

Lecture-9
Forest Resources

Forests of various kinds are extremely important terrestrial

ecosystems. They cover extensive areas of surface of Earth
and fix and store huge amounts of biomass.
Forest Resources

The global cover of forest is about 40-million km 2, of which

56% is temperate and boreal regions and 44% in tropical
regions.
The present forest area is about half of what it was before
human began to cause forestation about 10-thousand years
ago, mostly to develop agricultural land.
Forest Resources

Although temperate and boreal forests now cover an area

comparable to the tropical forest, their production is only
about half as large, and they store only 60% as much as
biomass.
Forest Resources

There are also another 3-billion hectares of open woodlands

and savannah (plains or prairie).
The most heavily forested regions are:
⮚ North and South America,
⮚ Europe, and
⮚ Russia,
all of which have more than 30% forest cover.
Forest Resources

Worldwide, an immense area of about 2 million hectares of

forest is cleared or harvested each year. Tree biomass is
harvested for three major reasons:
1. As a fuel for subsistence, that is, to burn as a source of
energy for cooking and warmth.
2. As an industrial fuel, used to generate electricity or to
produce steam or heat for a manufacturing process.
Forest Resources

3. As a raw material to manufacture lumber, paper,

composite materials such as plywood and waterboards, and
other products, such as synthetic rayon and celluloid.
Forest Resources

In addition, forests may be cleared not as much biomass,

but to create a new agricultural or urbanized land.
These longer-term ecological conversions result in
deforestation, which is a permanent loss of forest cover.
Forest Resources

The net primary production of global forests has been

estimated to be about 49-billion tonnes per year, of which an
extraordinary 28% is used by humans.
Humans use can be divided into the following categories:
- short-term clearing of forests for shifting cultivation in
less-developed countries (45%).
Forest Resources

- More permanent conversion of forests to agricultural land-

uses (18%)
- Harvesting of tree biomass (16%)
- Productivity of trees in plantation (12%)
- Loss during harvest (9%)
Forest Resources

Forest resources in many countries are being rapidly

depleted by high rates of clearing.
This is particularly true in many tropical countries, where
deforestation is largely driven by increasing populations and
the resulting need for more agricultural land and wood fuels.
Forest Resources

Also important are the economic and industrial demands for

tree biomass to manufacture into charcoal and products for
international trade.
Forest Resources

The global rate of deforestation was 6.1 million hectares per

year between 1990 and 2010.
These are high rates of forest loss, and they appear to have
increased since the late 1990s.
Forest Resources

Satellite data for Amazonia, for example, suggest that the

rate of clearing increased by about 50% in 1996-1997, which
was a relatively dry year that was favorable for removing
tropical forest by burning for conversion into pasture or
fields for growing soybeans.
Forest Resources

Recently some of the countries have been losing their

forests at extraordinary rates.
For instance, between 1990 and 2010, Nigeria lost 48% of its
forest cover at an average rate of 2.4% per year.
Another African country, Burundi, lost 41% of its forest during
that period, while Honduras in Central America lost 36%.
Forest Resources

The rapid deforestation that is occurring in most developing

countries represent the mining of potentially renewable
lumber, fuel wood, and other uses of tree biomass.
In addition deforestation in tropical and subtropical regions
causes terrible ecological damages, such as endangerment
and extinction of biodiversity.
Forest Resources

In contrast to the rapid deforestation that is occurring in

most less-developed countries, the forest cover of many
develop ones has recently been stable or increasing.
This is happening in spite of industrial harvesting of timber
resources in many of these countries, largely to manufacture
lumber and paper.
Forest Resources

This is because the industrial forestry that is typically

pursued in North America and Western Europe allows, and
even works to encourage the regeneration of another forest
on harvested sites.
Forest Resources

Consequently, there is net loss of forest cover, although the

character of ecosystem may change because of the
management system being used, especially if tree plantation
replace the natural forest.
Forest Resources

Although most developed countries now have a stable or

increasing forest cover, this has not always been the case.
Many of these countries were being actively deforested as
recently as the beginning of the 20th century.
Most of the early deforestation occurred in order to develop
land for agriculture.
Forest Resources

Extensive deforestation also occurred during the first World

War, when European countries were engaged in “total war”
economies and were harvesting as quickly as possible, often
for use as pit props in underground coal mining.
Large parts of these regions are now largely devoid of forest
cover, which has been replaced by agro-ecosystems and
urbanized land.
Forest Resources

The process of deforestation largely stopped around 1920 to

1930. At that time, forested areas began to increase in many
developed countries.
This happened because many small farms of marginal
agricultural capability were abandoned and their inhabitants
migrated to urban areas to seek work.
Forest Resources

Over time, the land reverted to forest. In much of Europe,

this involved the establishment of plantations ( tree-farms),
usually of conifer species. In other regions there was a
natural afforestation as tree-seeds established new
populations on disused rural land.
Forest Resources

For example, because of these socio-economic and

ecological dynamics, the area of forest in much of the
Maritime Province has approximately doubled since the
beginning of the twentieth century. Similar changes have
occurred in other developed regions of the world.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

Globally, the net trend is one of rapid deforestation.

Between 1990 and 2010, about 7-million hectares of forest
per year were lost to deforestation.
Almost all of this aggressive deforestation is associated with
the conversion of tropical forest into agricultural land, but
the harvesting of food products is also important in some
regions.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

Globally, only about half of the original forest areas

remains.
In most parts of North America, in order to achieve the great
economic benefits of forestry, large areas of mature forest
must be harvested each year. .
Harvesting and Managing Forests

Of course to achieve the great economic benefits of

forestry, large areas of mature forest must be harvested
each year.
In 2013, 638-thousand hectare of mature forest were
harvested, which is considerable less that the 1-million
hectares that was the annual harvest from 1995 to 2006.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

The large decrease reflects a general downturn in global

markets for forest commodities, especially for paper
products.
About 90% of the harvesting is by clear-cutting, and the rest
by more selective methods.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

About 80% of he industrial harvest was conifer trees

( softwoods) and 20% broad-leafed trees (hardwoods).
The area of forest harvested was equivalent to about 0.4% of
the area of “productive” forest of Canada and total area of
Canada.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

Of course to achieve the great economic benefits of

forestry, large areas of mature forest must be harvested
each year.
In 2013, 638-thousand hectare of mature forest were
harvested, which is considerable less that the 1-million
hectares that was the annual harvest from 1995 to 2006.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

The large decrease reflects a general downturn in global

markets for forest commodities, especially for paper
products.
About 90% of the harvesting is by clear-cutting, and the rest
by more selective methods.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

About 80% of he industrial harvest was conifer trees

( softwoods) and 20% broad-leafed trees (hardwoods).
The area of forest harvested was equivalent to about 0.4% of
the area of “productive” forest of Canada and total area of
Canada.
Harvesting and Managing Forests

Overall, from the industrial perspective, forestry as it is

practiced in Canada appears to be conserving its primary
economic resource- the area of forest and the productivity
of tree biomass.
Moreover, additional environmental considerations must be
weighted before Canadian industrial forestry can be
considered to be ecologically sustainable. The issues include
the following:
Harvesting and Managing Forests

- Long-term effects of harvesting and management on site

capability, which may become degraded by nutrient losses
and erosion.
- Effects on populations of fish, deer and other hunted
species, which also are an economic “resource”.
Environmental Effects of Forestry.

Introduction: Forestry includes both the harvesting of trees

and the management of post-harvest succession to foster the
regeneration of another forest.
Forest science guides these activities by providing an
understanding of the environmental factors that affect the
productivity of trees.
Forest harvesting and site capability

The ability of soil to supply plants with nutrients is a critical

aspect of site capability.
In large part, this ecological function depends on the
nutrient capital of a site, which is the amount of nutrients
present in the soil, having vegetation, and dead organic
matter.
Forest harvesting and site capability

When trees are harvested, the nutrients in their biomass are

also removed, which can deplete the nutrient capital of the
site.
A stand of forest may be harvested using a variety of
methods, which vary in the amount of:
Biomass and
Nutrients
that are removed from the site.
Forest harvesting and site capability

A selection harvest is a relatively “soft” method because it

involves the harvesting of only some of the trees from a
stand, leaving others behind and the structure of the forest
substantially intact.
There are also some least intensive methods of clear-cutting.
Forest harvesting and site capability

A shelterwood harvest is a staged clear-cut, in which some

larger trees of economically desirable species are left
standing during the initial cut.
This provide a seed source and a partially shaded
environment that encourages natural regeneration.
Once the regeneration is well underway, the large “leave”
trees are harvested.
Forest harvesting and site capability

A strip-cut is another kind of staged harvest, in which long

and narrow clear-cuts are made at intervals, with uncut
forest left in between to provide a source of seed to
regenerate trees in the cut strips. This system of progressive
strip-cutting continues until all the forest in the
management block (the specific area being managed this
way) has been harvested.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Typically, an area is harvested in three to four strips.

To regenerate trees on the final strips, foresters may rely on
advanced regeneration- that is , on small individuals of tree
species that existed in the stand prior to harvesting and that
survived the disturbance of clear-cutting.
Alternatively, they may plant the last strip with seedlings.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Clear-cutting systems also vary in how intensively the

biomass of individual trees is harvested.
The usual stem-only harvest involves:
the removal of tree trunks, leaving the roots, stumps, and
logging “slash” on the site.
Forest harvesting and site capability

The harvesting logs can then be processed into lumber or

pulp for manufacturing paper.

Nutrient losses during harvesting such as a whole-tree-cut

increases the yield of biomass, there is also considerably
more removal of nutrients.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Some forest scientists have suggested that the nutrient

removals from whole-tree harvests could degrade the
capability of sites to sustain free productivity.
Forest harvesting and site capability

The problems would be especially severe if the harvests are

conducted over a short rotation.
This might not allow enough time for the nutrient capital to
recover by natural input, such as by
Precipitation,
Nitrogen fixation, and
Weathering of minerals.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Site impoverishment caused by intensive cropping is a well-

known problem in farming, in which a severely degraded
land may have to be abandoned for some or all agricultural
purposes.
However, usually this problem can be managed, to a degree,
by applying fertilizer or composted organic matter to the
land.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Sometimes, however, the degradation of site capability,

especially of tilth (capability to sow seeds), is too severe,
and this simple mitigation is not successful.
Of course , the harvest rotation in agriculture is usually
annual, whereas in forestry it ranges from about 20 to 100
years.
However, each timber harvest involves the removal of huge
quantity of biomass, and thus of nutrients.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Site impoverishment caused by intensive cropping is a well-

known problem in farming, in which a severely degraded
land may have to be abandoned for some or all agricultural
purposes.
However, usually this problem can be managed, to a degree,
by applying fertilizer or composted organic matter to the
land.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Sometimes, however, the degradation of site capability,

especially of tilth , is too severe, and this simple mitigation
is not successful.
Of course , the harvest rotation in agriculture is usually
annual, whereas in forestry it ranges from about 20 to 100
years. However, each timber harvest involves the removal of
huge quantity of biomass, and thus of nutrients.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Compare , for example, the amounts of biomass and

nutrients removed by clear-cuts of a conifer forest in Nova
Scotia .
In this case, a whole-tree clear-cut yielded 30% more
biomass than a stem-only harvest.
Forest harvesting and site capability

The increased yield may be an advantage, particularly if

the harvest is to be used for energy production.
The increased harvest of biomass is however due to the
removal of nutrient-rich tissues such a foliage and small
branches.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Consequently, the whole-tree harvest removed up to twice

as many nutrients as did the stem-only clear-cut.
In effect, a 30% increase in biomass yield by the whole-tree
method was “purchased” at the ecological “expense” of 54%
- 99% increase in the removal of nutrients.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Leaching (draining) of Nutrients:

The disturbance of forested land can increase the rate at
which the dissolved nutrients are transported downward into
the soil with percolating/permeating rainwater (a process
known as leaching).
Forest harvesting and site capability

If the nutrients leach(seep) deeper into the soil than tree

roots can penetrate, they are effectively lost from the
“working” nutrient capital of the site.
Eventually, leached can find their way into groundwater and
surface waters.
Forest harvesting and site capability

The nutrients with the greatest to leach (seep) are nitrate

and potassium, both of which are highly soluble in water.
However, calcium, magnesium, and sulphate may also leach
in significant amounts.
Of course, following a clear-cut, any nutrient losses by
leaching(draining) are in addition to that removed with tree
biomass.
Forest harvesting and site capability

A well-known study of nutrient leaching caused by forest

disturbance was done at Hubbard Brook, New Hampshire.
This large-scale experiment involved felling all of the trees
on a 16-ha watershed, but without removing any biomass the
cut trees were left on the ground.
Forest harvesting and site capability

The watershed was then treated with herbicide for three

years to suppress regeneration.
This experiment was designed to examine the effects of
intense disturbance, by de-vegetation, on biological control
of water shed functions such as nutrient cycling and
hydrology.
This research was not intended to examine the effects of a
typical forestry practice.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Forestry and Erosion:

Forestry activities can cause severe losses or erosion,
particularly in terrain with steep slopes. In most cases,
erosions is triggered by improperly reconstructing logging
roads, using streams as trails to haul logs, running log-
removal trail down slopes instead of along them, and
harvesting trees from steep slopes that are extremely
vulnerable to soil loss.
Forest harvesting and site capability

In general, however, road building is the most important

cause of erosion on forestry lands, especially where culverts
(channeled stream crossings) are not sufficiently large or
numerous, or are poorly installed.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Severe erosions causes many environmental damages.

In extreme cases, the loss of soil may expose bedrock,
making forest regeneration impossible.
Soil loss also represents a depletion of site nutrient capital.
Forest harvesting and site capability

Erosion also causes secondary damage to aquatic habitats,

including the disposition of silt (or siltation), which covers
gravel substrates that are important to spawning fish.
Also the shallow water increases the risk of flooding.
Best of Luck