Unit II: AC Fundamental

Dr. Nafees Ahamad

Head EECE
DIT University, Dehradun
Simple Loop Generator:
Simple Loop Generator:
Simple Loop Generator:
Simple Loop Generator…
• The amount of EMF induced into a coil cutting the magnetic lines of
force is determined by the following three factors.
• Speed – the speed at which the coil rotates inside the magnetic field.
• Strength – the strength of the magnetic field.
• Length – the length of the coil or conductor passing through the
magnetic field.
What is the instantaneous value?

The instantaneous values of a sinusoidal waveform is given as the "Instantaneous value = Maximum value x sinϴ and this is
generalized by the formula.
v  Vm Sin
What is the instantaneous value…
What is the instantaneous value…
 Sinusoidal Waveform Construction
Coil Angle ( θ ) 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360

v(t)= Vmax Sinθ 0 70.71 100 70.71 0 -70.71 -100 -70.71 -0

 Sinusoidal Quantities (Voltage & Current)
• Voltage or EMF is denoted by i  I m Sint
v  Vm Sint
e  E m Sin t

Where Vm or Em = Maximum Value of Voltage or EMF

v or e = Instantaneous value of Voltage or EMF
  2 f  Angular frequency f = frequency in Hz
Phase difference, Phasor diagram and
Leading & lagging concepts:
• v1=Vm1sin(ωt+45)
• v2=Vm2sin(ωt+30)
V1

V2
45 0

300

Phasor Diagram
(Clockwise +Ve angle)

Here v1 & v2 are having a phase difference of 150. The blue(v1) vector is said to be
leading the red(v2) vector Or Conversely, the red vector is lagging the blue vector.
Displaced waveforms:
Some Terminology
• 1. Wave form: The shape of the curve.
• 2. Instantaneous value: The value at any instant of time.
• 3. Cycle: One complete set of +ve and –ve values
• 4. Time Period: Time taken to complete one cycle.
• 5. Frequency: Number of cycles completed in one second.

1
f  Hz
T
Average value of AC
Let i  I m Sint

Since the average value of the full cycle is zero so find out the average value of half cycle
Average current
Area of half cycle
I av 



 idt
 0




I m Sint dt
 0

 Similarly the average value of ac voltage


Im Im
  Sint dt   cos t 0 Vav 
2
Vm
 
0 
2
I av  Im

RMS (Root Mean Square or Effective)
Value:
Let i  I m Sint

RMS current
Area of cycle of i 2
I rms  I 

 

 i dt I Sin 2t dt

2 2
m
 0
 0
 

Similarly RMS value of ac voltage
2  2
I  1  cos 2t  I m  t sin 2t 
V
 0 
 m
  d t   Vrms  m
2    2 4  0
2
Im
I rms 
2
Peak & Form Factor
Peak Factor(Kp): for complete sine wave

Maximum Value Im
Kp    2  1.414
RMS Value Im / 2

Form Factor (Kf): for complete sine wave

RMS Value I / 2 
Kf   m   1.11
Avarage Value 2 I m /  2 2
Example
• Calculate the average voltage, effective voltage, peak factor & form
factor of the output waveform of the half-wave rectifier.


V m Sin t dt
Vm
Vavg  0
 cos 0  sin    Vm
2 2 


V Sin 2t dt

2
2
m
Vm2  t sin 2t  Vm
Vrms  0
  
2 2  2 4  0 2

Maximum Value V
Kp   m 2
RMS Value Vm / 2
Question: Find the above for the output waveform of the full-
RMS Value V /2  wave rectifier.
Kf   m   1.57
Avarage Value Vm /  2
Single phase AC circuit
Purely Resistive Circuit:
Let applied voltage R

v =Vm Sinωt
According to ----------(1)
v
Ohm’s Law
~
v=iR Fig. 11a

Vm Sinωt = i R
i =Vm/R Sinωt Let Vm/R =Im

So i =Im Sinωt ----------(2)

 Phasor diagram Note:

1. Cosine of angle between Voltage (V) and current (I)
is known as power factor i.e PF= Cosɸ
I V Fig .11b 2. If current lags => power factor lags
Φ =0, PF cos Φ=1, No phase different or V & I are in 3. If current leads => power factor leads
the same phase
Purely Resistive Circuit…
 Power consumed  Waveform
Instantaneous power
p=v*i
= Vm Sinωt* Im Sinωt
= VmIm Sin2ωt
Average power


 pdt 1



P 0
 V I Sin 2t dt
 0
m m

  
1  1  cos 2t  1 Vm I m 1
P   Vm I m 
 0 2 
 d  t  d t  cos 2t
 0  2   0

Vm I m Vm I m
P   Vrms I rms  VI Note: It is also clear from the above graph that p is having
2 2 2 some average value.
Example
• Example : A 250 Volts (RMS), 50 Hz voltage is applied across a circuit
consisting of a pure resistance of 20 ohms. Determine
• The current flowing through the circuit
• Power absorbed by the circuit
• An expression for voltage and current
• Draw waveform and phasor diagram.
 Example…

Solution:
V 250
I rms  I    12.5 Amp
R 20
Power absorbed =VI=250*12.5=3125 Watt Ans

v  250 2 sin 2 (50)t  250 2 sin 100t

i  12.5 sin 100t
See figure 11c
 Purely Inductive Circuit:
L
Let applied voltage
v =Vm Sinωt
v
---------- (1)
When an alternating voltage is applied to the purely inductive coil, an emf ~
known as self-induced emf is induced in the coil which opposes the applied Fig. 12a
voltage.
Integr
Self-induced
ating
emf 1 1  Cost  Vm
eL   L
di(t ) i   Vm Sin t dt  Vm   Sin t   / 2
dt L L    L
Since the applied voltage at every instant is Vm
Let
Im 
equal and opposite to self-induced emf L
We have v=-eL Here ωL=XL know as inductive reactance
 di (t ) 
Vm Sint    L So
 dt  i  I m Sin t   / 2 
1
di  Vm Sint dt Here current lags
L by 900.
Purely Inductive Circuit…
 Phasor diagram  Power consumed

Instantaneous power
p=v*i
= Vm Sinωt* Im Sin(ωt-900)
= -VmIm Sinωt Cosωt
= -VmIm /2 Sin2ωt
Average power
Φ =900, PF CosΦ=0, Phase difference between V

& I is 900. Current (I) lags by 900 from the
voltage (V).  pdt  V I 
P 0
 Ava  m m Sin 2t   0
  2 

Hence NO power is consumed in a purely inductive

circuit.
Purely Inductive Circuit…
 Waveform

Note: It is also clear from the above graph that p is having

ZERO average value.
Example
Purely Capacitive Circuit: C

Let applied voltage

v
v =Vm Sinωt
----------
~
Charge Q  Cv (1) Fig. 14a

And we know
 Phasor diagram
dq d
i  CVm Sint dt  VmC Cost
dt dt
Vm
i Sin t   / 2 
1 C
Let Vm
Im 
1 C
Here 1 Φ =900, PF CosΦ=0, Phase difference
 XC know as capacitive reactance between V & I is 900. Current (I) leads by
C
900 from the voltage (V).
So i  I m Sin t   / 2 
Here current leads
Purely Capacitive Circuit…
 Phasor diagram
Φ =900, PF CosΦ=0, Phase difference between V & I
is 900. Current (I) leads by 900 from the voltage (V).

 Power consumed
Instantaneous power
 Waveform
=v*i
= Vm Sinωt* Im Sin(ωt+900)
= VmIm Sinωt Cosωt
= VmIm /2 Sin2ωt
Average power


 pdt V I 
P 0
 Ava  m m Sin 2t   0
  2 
Hence NO power is consumed in a purely Note: It is also clear from the above graph that p is having
capacitive circuit. ZERO average value.
Example
• Example 5: A 318 μF capacitor is connected to 200 V, 50 Hz supply.
Determine
• Capacitive reactance offered by the capacitor
• The maximum current
• RMS value of current drawn by capacitor
• Expression for voltage & current
 Example
XC=1/ωC=1/2ᴫfC=10 Ohm

Im=Vm/XC=200√2/10=20√2 A

Irms = Im/√2=20 A

v  200 2 sin 100t

i  20 2 sin 100t   / 2 
R-L Circuit:
Let the applied voltage is
v =Vm Sinωt
----------
Voltage across (1)
resistance VR=I.R
Voltage across inductance VL=I.XL
=I.(ωL) = I. (2πfL)
From phasor diagram
So
i  I m Sin t   
2 2
V  VR  VL  ( IR ) 2  ( X L I ) 2
2
V  I R 2  X L  IZ
Where
Where Z  R2  X L
2
know as impedance Vm
Im 
From phasor diagram, “I” is lagging behind “V” by an angle ϕ Z
VL IX L X L X
tan        tan 1 L
VR IR R R
 R-L Circuit…
 Phasor diagram
Phase difference between V & I is ϕ. Current (I) lags
by ϕ0 from the voltage (V).
VR & I are in the same phase, VL is leading by an angle of 900
from I etc.
 Power consumed
Instantaneous power
p=v*i
= Vm Sinωt* Im Sin(ωt-ϕ0)
Vm I m V I
 2 SintSin t     m m cos   cos2t   
2 2
Average power
V I 
P  Ava  m m cos   cos2t   
 2 
R-L Circuit…
V I  V I 
 Ava  m m cos    Ava  m m cos2t   
 2   2 
V I
P  m m cos  Ava cos2t     0
2
V I
P  m m cos   VI cos 
2 2
 Waveform
 Voltage triangle and Impedance triangle:

Power factor: Cos ϕ=VR/V=R/Z

 Active power, reactive power, apparent power and power factor:

Active power P = VI Cos ϕ = I2R Unit: Watt, KW

Reactive power Q = VI Sin ϕ = I2X Unit: VAR, KVAR
Apparent Power S = VI = I2Z Unit: VA, KVA
Impedance(Z):
Z R2  X 2 Ω, Ohm

Where R= Resistance Ω
X= Reactance
Ω
PF:
Cosϕ= R/Z
Admittance(Y)
It is reciprocal of impedance Y=1/Z
Y  G2  B2 Ω-1 , Mho,
Siemens
Where G= Conductance Ω-1
X= Susceptance
Ω-1
PF:
Cosϕ= G/Y
G=YCos ϕ=(1/Z)(R/Z)=R/Z2.
B=YSin
ϕ=(1/Z)(X/Z)=X/Z2.
Solving Parallel Circuits
• There are 3 methods for solving parallel circuits
1. Phasor Method
2. Admittance Method
3. Symbolic or j-notation Method
Symbolic or j-notation Method
Consider the following voltage and current This voltage can be represented by

v  Vm sin t V = Vx + jVy Cartesian Co-ordinates

i  I m sin t    V = | V | ∠θ in polar coordinates.

I = Ix - jIy Cartesian Co-ordinates
Waveform and phasor diagram will be as shown
I = | I | ∠-θ in polar coordinates.
bellow
Here
Vx & Ix = Components of V & I along
the x-axis
Vy & Iy = Components of V & I along
the y-axis
j is an operator which when multiplied to a phasor
rotates the phasor 90° anticlockwise and j =√ (− 1)
or j2 = -1

Wav Phasor
eform Diagram
Symbolic or j-notation Method…
Let
𝑉 1=3 +4 𝑗 ⇒ 𝑉 1= 5∠ 53.13
0

𝑉 2=2 − 3 𝑗 ⇒ 𝑉 2 =3.606 ∠ −5 6 .3 1
0

𝑉 1 +𝑉 2=( 3 + 4 𝑗 ) + ( 2 − 3 𝑗 ) =5 + 𝑗

Hence a voltage or current can be𝑉 1 − 𝑉 2 =( 3+ 4 𝑗 ) − ( 2− 3 𝑗 ) =1+ 𝑗 7

represented by a complex number. 0

𝑉 / 𝑉 =( 3+ 4 𝑗 ) / ( 2 − 3 𝑗 )=5 ∠ 53.13 / 3.606 ∠ − 56.3
1 2

Note: In Phasor algebra: ¿ 1.3866 ∠ 109.4

o Addition & Subtraction 𝑉 is done in
1 × 𝑉 2 =( 3 + 4 𝑗 ) × ( 2− 3 𝑗)
Cartesian form. 0
¿ 5 ∠53.13 × 3.606 ∠−56.31
0

o Multiplication, Division, power, 0

¿ 18.03 ∠ − 3.18
and roots are done in polar form.
Phasor Algebra applied to single phase
circuit
• R-L series circuit:
Phasor Algebra applied to single phase
circuit
• R-C series circuit:
Phasor Algebra applied to single phase
circuit
• R-L-C parallel circuit:
Phasor Algebra applied to single phase
circuit
• Series-parallel circuit
Example
Example 9: A 15mH inductor is in series with a parallel combination of a 80 ohm resistance & 20 μF capacitor. If “ω”
of applied voltage is 1000. Find
i. Total impedance
ii. Total admittance
iii. Current in each branch if applied voltage is 230 V
Solution:
Z1=R=80 Ω

Equivalent
impedance 80  50 j
Z  Z1 Z 2   Z 3 
Z1Z 2
 Z3   15 j
Z1  Z 2 80  50 j

Z = 22.4719 - 20.9551j = 30.726 - 430

Example
1 1
Y   0.0325 430
 0.0238 + 0.0222j Ans (ii)
Z 30.726  430

V 2300 0
I   7.4854  - 43 0
 4.1552  6.2262 j Ans (iii)
Z 30.726  430

Z2
I1  I By current division rule
Z1  Z 2
 50 j
  7.4854  430  3.9655 - 0.1186j  3.963 - 1.71310 Ans (iii)
80  50 j
Z1
I1  I By current division rule Or
Z1  Z 2

Ans (iii)
Thank you