Bones and Skeletal Tissues

Anatomy & Physiology

Skeletal Cartilage Skeletal Cartilage
mbryologically, the human skeletion is initially
Iormed Irom cartilages and Iibrous membranes.
During development, most oI this original structure
is replaced with bone.
High water content (resilience)
No blood vessels or nerves present
Surrounded by a perichondrium (dense irregular CT)
The 3 types have the same basic components:
Chondrocytes (cartilage-producing cells) residing
inside Lacunae within an CM (extracellular matrix)
%5es of Cartilage %5es of Cartilage -- Haline Cartilage Haline Cartilage
) Articular Cartilage -
covers ends oI long bones
2) Costal Cartilage -
connects ribs to sternum
3) Respiratory Cartilage -
larynx and air passages
4) Nasal Cartilage -
supports the nose
Provides support, Ilexibility, and resilience - the most
abundant skeletal cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage 400X
1 to 4 chondrocytes in lacuna
%5es of Cartilage %5es of Cartilage -- Elastic Cartilage Elastic Cartilage
) xternal ar (pinna)
2) piglottis
Similar to hyaline cartilage but contains elastic Iibers in
matrix, more Ilexible than hyaline
lastic Cartilage 400X
chondrocyte in lacuna
cartilage
densely packed elastic fibers
%5es of Cartilage %5es of Cartilage -- Fibrocartilage Fibrocartilage
) Intervetebral Discs
2) Pubic Symphysis
3) Knee Articular
Cartilages (menisci)
Highly compressible with great tensile strength, thick
collagen Iibers present
ibrocartilage 400X
chondrocyte in lacuna
collagen fibers
Cartilages of the Human Bod Cartilages of the Human Bod
rowth of Cartilage rowth of Cartilage
Interstitial (growth Irom inside)
Chondrocytes inside lacunae divide and secrete
new matrix, expanding the cartilage Irom within.
Appositional (growth Irom outside)
Cartilage-Iorming cells, chondroblasts, adjacent to
the perichondrium secrete matrix against the
external Iace oI existing cartilage.
Classification of Bones Classification of Bones -- 2 rou5s 2 rou5s
Axial Skeleton Iorms the long axis oI the body,
Includes: bones oI the skull,
vertebral column,
and rib cage
Appendicular Skeleton relating to an appendage,
Includes:
bones oI the upper and lower limbs,
shoulder girdle, and hip girdle
Functions of Bones Functions of Bones
W Support Iorm the Iramework that supports the body
W Protection provide a protective case Ior the brain,
spinal cord, and organs
W Movement provide levers Ior muscles
W Mineral storage reservoir Ior minerals, especially
calcium and phosphorus
W Blood cell Iormation hematopoiesis occurs within
the marrow cavities oI bones
ross Anatom of Bones ross Anatom of Bones
xternal Features oI Bones projections, depressions,
and openings that serve as sites oI muscle, ligament,
and tendon attachment, as joint surIaces, or conduits
Ior blood vessels and nerves
Compact Bone dense outer layer
Spongy Bone (cancellous bone)
honeycomb oI trabeculae (needle-
like or Ilat pieces) Iilled with bone
marrow
Structure of %5ical Long Bone Structure of %5ical Long Bone
Diaphysis - tubular shaIt Iorming
the axis oI long bones.
Composed oI compact bone
surrounding a central medullary
cavity containing bone marrow
piphysis expanded end oI
long bones
Joint surIace is covered with
articular (hyaline) cartilage
piphyseal lines separate the
diaphysis Irom the epiphyses
Metaphysis where epiphysis
and diaphysis meet
Bone Membranes Bone Membranes -- Periosteum and Endosteum Periosteum and Endosteum
Periosteum double-layered
protective membrane, supplied
with nerve Iibers, blood, and
lymphatic vessels entering the
bone via nutrient Ioramina
Secured to underlying bone by
Sharpey`s Iibers (collagen)
Outer Iibrous layer is dense
irregular CT
Inner osteogenic layer is
composed oI osteoblasts and
osteoclasts
Bone Membranes Bone Membranes -- Periosteum and Endosteum Periosteum and Endosteum
Periosteum provides anchoring
points Ior tendons and ligaments
ndosteum delicate CT
membrane covering internal
surIaces oI bone - covers
trabeculae oI spongy bone and
lines canals in compact bone,
also contains both osteoblasts
and osteoclasts
Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones
Plates oI periosteum-
covered compact bone on
the outside with
endosteum-covered
spongy bone, diplo, on
the inside
Have no diaphysis or
epiphyses
Contain bone marrow
between the trabeculae
Location of Hemato5oietic %issue (Red Marrow) Location of Hemato5oietic %issue (Red Marrow)
In inIants: red marrow is Iound in the medullary
cavity oI the diaphysis and all areas oI
spongy bone
In adults: red marrow is Iound in the diplo oI Ilat
bones (sternum and ilium), and the head oI
the Iemur and humerus
Yellow Marrow meshwork oI Iibers containing Iat
Red Marrow meshwork containing developmental
stages oI blood cells
Microsco5ic Anatom of Bone: Com5act Bone Microsco5ic Anatom of Bone: Com5act Bone
Haversian System, or Osteon the structural unit oI
compact bone
Lamellae weight-bearing,
column-like matrix tubes
composed oI collagen and crystals
oI bone salts
Haversian Canal central channel containing blood
vessels and nerves
Volkmann`s Canals channels lying at right angles
to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve
supply oI the periosteum to the Haversian canal
Microsco5ic Anatom of Bone: Com5act Bone Microsco5ic Anatom of Bone: Com5act Bone
Osteocytes
mature bone cells
Lacunae
cavities in bone
containing osteocytes
Canaliculi
hairlike canals that
connect lacunae to
each other and the
central canal
Microsco5ic Anatom of Bone: Com5act Bone Microsco5ic Anatom of Bone: Com5act Bone
Compact Osteonic Bone 400X
osteocyte in lacuna central canal
of osteon
canaliculi
Compact Osteonic Bone 400X
concentric IameIIae
osteon
Com5osition of Bone: Organic Com5osition of Bone: Organic
Cells:
Osteoblasts bone-Iorming cells
Osteocytes mature bone cells
Osteoclasts large cells that resorb or break
down bone matrix
Osteoid unmineralized bone matrix composed
oI proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and collagen
Com5osition of Bone: Inorganic Com5osition of Bone: Inorganic
Hydroxyapatites, or mineral salts
- sixty-Iive percent oI bone by mass
- mainly calcium phosphates tiny
crystals surrounding the collagen Iibers
in the CM
- responsible Ior bone hardness and its
resistance to compression
Bone Develo5ment Bone Develo5ment
W Osteogenesis or OssiIication the process oI bone
tissue Iormation that leads to:
W The Iormation oI the skeleton in embryos
W Bone growth until early adulthood
W Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair
Formation of the Skeleton Formation of the Skeleton
BeIore week 8, the skeleton oI a human embryo
consists oI Iibrous membanes and hyaline cartilage
Intramembranous ossiIication bone develops Irom
a Iibrous CT membrane (Iormed by mesenchymal
cells). The Ilat bones oI the skull (Irontal, parietal,
temporal, occipital) and the clavicles are Iormed this
way.
ndochondral ossiIication bone Iorms by replacing
hyaline cartilage, uses hyaline cartilage 'bones as
patterns
Stages of Intramembranous Ossification Stages of Intramembranous Ossification
An ossiIication center appears
in the Iibrous CT membrane
(mesenchymal cells cluster
and diIIerentiate into
osteoblasts)
Bone matrix is secreted within
the Iibrous membrane
-osteoblasts secrete osteoid
which becomes mineralized
- osteoblasts osteocytes
Stages of Intramembranous Ossification Stages of Intramembranous Ossification
oven bone (network oI
trabeculae) and periosteum
(vascularized mesenchyme)
Bone collar oI compact
bone Iorms (later replaced
with lamellar bone)
Red marrow appears
ntramembranous Ossification 100X
trabeculae of
spongy bone
connective tissue
ntramembranous Ossification 100X
trabeculae of
spongy bone
osteocyte
in lacuna
osteoblasts
Endochondral Ossification Endochondral Ossification
&ses hyaline cartilage 'bones as models or
patterns Ior bone construction
More complex than intramembranous
ossiIication, requires breakdown oI hyaline
cartilage prior to ossiIication
Begins with the primary ossiIication center
perichondrium becomes vascularized and
mesenchymal cells diIIerentiate into osteoblasts
Stages of Endochondral Ossification Stages of Endochondral Ossification
Formation oI bone collar
around diaphysis
Cavitation (calciIication and
deterioration) oI the hyaline
cartilage in the center oI the
diaphysis
Periosteal bud invades the
internal cavities and spongy
bone Iorms
Stages of Endochondral Ossification Stages of Endochondral Ossification
Diaphysis elongates (due to
division oI chondrocytes at
epiphyses) and the medullary
cavity Iorms
Secondary ossiIication
centers Iorm in the epiphyses
piphyses ossiIy, with
hyaline cartilage remaining
on the articular surIace and
as epiphyseal plates
ormation
of bone
coIIar
around
hyaIine
cartiIage
modeI.
1
2
3
4
Cavitation
of the
hyaIine
cartiIage
within the
cartiIage
modeI.
Invasion of
internaI cavities
by the
periosteaI bud
and spongy
bone formation.
5 Ossification of the
epiphyses; when
compIeted, hyaIine
cartiIage remains
onIy in the
epiphyseaI pIates
and articuIar
cartiIages
ormation of the
meduIIary cavity as
ossification continues;
appearance of
secondary ossification
centers in the
epiphyses in
preparation for stage 5.
HyaIine
cartiIage
Primary
ossification
center
Bone
coIIar
Deteriorating
cartiIage matrix
Spongy
bone
formation
BIood
vesseI of
periostea
I bud
Secondary
ossification
center
EpiphyseaI
bIood vesseI
MeduIIary
cavity
EpiphyseaI
pIate
cartiIage
Spongy
bone
ArticuIar
cartiIage
Stages of Endochondral Ossification Stages of Endochondral Ossification
ndochondral Ossification 40X
hyaIine cartiIage
spongy
bone
fetal limb
ndochondral Ossification 40X
one of
reserve
cartiIage
one of hypertrophy
one of caIcification
one of erosion
and ossification
one of proIiferation
Postnatal Bone rowth Postnatal Bone rowth
During inIancy and youth, long bones lengthen by
interstitial growth at the epiphyseal plate and all
bones grow in thickness by appositional growth
Cartilage on the epiphysis side oI the
epiphyseal plate is relatively inactive
piphyseal plate cartilage next to the shaIt oI
the bone organizes into columns oI dividing
chondrocytes
Functional Zones in Long Bone rowth Functional Zones in Long Bone rowth
rowth zone cartilage cells
undergo mitosis, pushing the
epiphysis away Irom the
diaphysis
TransIormation zone older
cells enlarge, the matrix
becomes calciIied, cartilage cells
die, and the matrix begins to
deteriorate
Osteogenic zone new bone
Iormation occurs
Functional Zones in Long Bone rowth Functional Zones in Long Bone rowth
Long Bone rowth Long Bone rowth
Longitudinal rowth
cartilage continually
grows and is
replaced by bone
Appositional rowth
(remodeling) bone
is resorbed at
endosteal surIace
and added at
periosteal surIace
W During inIancy and childhood, epiphyseal plate
activity is stimulated by growth hormone (Irom
anterior pituitary)
W During puberty,testosterone and estrogens regulate
bone growth
W Initially promote adolescent growth spurts
W Cause masculinization and Ieminization oI speciIic
parts oI the skeleton
W Later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending
longitudinal bone growth
Hormonal Regulation of Bone rowth Hormonal Regulation of Bone rowth
Bone Remodeling Bone Remodeling
Remodeling &nits adjacent osteoblasts and
osteoclasts deposit and resorb bone at periosteal
and endosteal surIaces
Bone is active tissue small changes in bone
architecture occur continuously 5 to 7 oI
bone mass is recycled weekly spongy bone
is replaced every 3-4 years and compact bone
approximately every years
Bone De5osition Bone De5osition
W Occurs when bone is injured or extra strength is
needed
W Requires a healthy diet - protein, vitamins C, D, and
A, and minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
manganese, etc.)
W Alkaline phosphatase is essential Ior mineralization
oI bone
W Sites oI new matrix deposition are marked by:
W Osteoid seam unmineralized band oI bone matrix
W CalciIication Iront abrupt transition zone between
the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone
Bone Resor5tion Bone Resor5tion
W Accomplished by Osteoclasts (multinucleate
phagocytic cells)
W Resorption bays grooves Iormed by osteoclasts
as they break down bone matrix
W Resorption involves osteoclast secretion oI:
W Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix
W HCl that converts calcium salts into soluble Iorms
W Dissolved matrix is endocytosed and transcytosed
into the interstitial Iluid the blood
Control of Remodeling Control of Remodeling
W Two control loops regulate bone remodeling
W Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium
homeostasis in the blood
W Mechanical and gravitational Iorces acting on the
skeleton
Homeostasis oI Remodeling
Hormonal Mechanism Hormonal Mechanism
W Rising blood
Ca
2
stimulates
the thyroid to
release calcitonin
W Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposition
Hormonal Mechanism Hormonal Mechanism
W Falling blood
Ca
2
signals the
parathyroid
glands to release
PTH
W PTH signals
osteoclasts to
degrade bone
matrix and
release Ca
2
into
the blood
Res5onse to Mechanical Stress Res5onse to Mechanical Stress
W olII`s law a bone
grows or remodels in
response to the Iorces
or demands placed
upon it
Bone Fractures (Breaks) Bone Fractures (Breaks)
W Bone Iractures are classiIied by:
W The position oI the ends oI the bone aIter Iracture
(displaced, nondisplaced)
W Completeness oI the break (complete, incomplete)
W The orientation oI the break to the long axis oI the
bone (linear, transverse)
W hether or not the bones ends penetrate the skin
(simple, compound)
%5es of Bone Fractures %5es of Bone Fractures
W Nondisplaced bone ends retain normal position
W Displaced bone ends are out oI normal alignment
W Complete bone is broken all the way through
W Incomplete bone is not broken all the way through
W Linear Iracture is parallel to the long axis oI the
bone
W Transverse Iracture is perpendicular to the long
axis oI the bone
W Compound (open) bone ends penetrate the skin
W Simple (closed) bone ends do not penetrate the
skin
Common %5es of Fractures Common %5es of Fractures
W Comminuted bone Iragments into three or more pieces;
common in the elderly
W Spiral ragged break when bone is excessively twisted;
common sports injury
W Depressed broken bone portion pressed inward; typical
skull Iracture
W Compression bone is crushed; common in porous bones
W piphyseal epiphysis separates Irom diaphysis along
epiphyseal line; occurs where cartilage cells are dying
W reenstick incomplete Iracture one side oI the bone
breaks and the other side bends; common in children
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
W Hematoma
Iormation
W Torn blood vessels
hemorrhage
W A mass oI clotted
blood (hematoma)
Iorms at the
Iracture site
W Site becomes
swollen, painIul,
and inIlamed
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
ranulation tissue (soIt
callus) Iorms a Iew
days aIter the Iracture
Capillaries grow into the
tissue and phagocytic
cells begin cleaning
debris
Fibrocartilaginous callus
Iorms
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
Fibrocartilaginous Callus a mass oI repair tissue,
occurs when:
Osteoblasts and Iibroblasts migrate to the Iracture and
begin reconstructing the bone
Fibroblasts secret collagen Iibers that connect
broken bone ends
Osteoblasts begin Iorming spongy bone
(osteoblasts Iarthest Irom capillaries secrete a
cartilaginous matrix that later calciIies)
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
New bone trabeculae appear
in the Iibrocartilaginous
callus
Fibrocartilaginous callus
changes to a bony (hard)
callus
Bone callus begins -4
weeks aIter injury, and
continues until Iirm union
is Iormed 2-3 months later
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
Bone remodeling begins
during bony callus
Iormation
xcess material on the
bone shaIt exterior and in
the medullary canal is
removed
Compact bone is laid down
to reconstruct shaIt walls
Final remodeled structure
resembles original because
it reponds to the same
mechanical stresses
Im5ortance of Ionic Calcium in the Bod Im5ortance of Ionic Calcium in the Bod
W Calcium is necessary Ior:
W Transmission oI nerve impulses
W Muscle contraction
W Blood coagulation
W Secretion by glands and nerve cells
W Cell division
Im5ortance of Ionic Calcium in the Bod Im5ortance of Ionic Calcium in the Bod
Minute changes Irom the homeostatic range Ior
blood calcium may lead to severe neuromuscular
problems (hyperexcitibility when levels are too
low, inability to Iunction when levels are too high)
Hypercalcemia sustained high blood levels oI
Ca
2
- can lead to calcium deposition in blood
vessels, kidneys, and other organs
Homeostatic Imbalances Homeostatic Imbalances
W Osteomalacia
W Bones are inadequately mineralized causing
soItened, weakened bones
W Main symptom is pain when weight is put on the
aIIected bone
W Caused by insuIIicient calcium in the diet, or by
vitamin D deIiciency, etc.
Homeostatic Imbalances Homeostatic Imbalances
W Rickets
W Bones oI children are inadequately mineralized
causing soItened, weakened bones
W Bowed legs and deIormities oI the pelvis, skull,
and rib cage are common
W Caused by insuIIicient calcium in the diet, or by
vitamin D deIiciency
Osteoporosis Osteoporosis
oung" normaI bone
OId" porous bone
- Osteporosity 2eans
porous bones
- Porosity of bones
increases with age
- Muscle exercise
sti2ulates deposition of
2inerals in bones and
reduces the
osteoporosis
Homeostatic Imbalances Homeostatic Imbalances
W Osteoporosis
W roup oI diseases in which bone reabsorption
outpaces bone deposit
W Spongy bone oI the spine is most vulnerable
W Occurs most oIten in postmenopausal women
W Treatment
W Calcium and vitamin D supplements
W Increased weight bearing exercise
W Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT)
W Prevented or delayed by suIIicient calcium intake
and weight-bearing exercise
Paget`s Disease Paget`s Disease
W Characterized by excessive bone Iormation and
breakdown
W Pagetic bone has a higher ratio oI spongy bone to
compact bone
W Pagetic bone, along with reduced mineralization,
causes spotty weakening oI bone
W Osteoclast activity wanes, but osteoblast activity
continues and may Iorm irregular bone thickenings
or Iill the marrow cavity
W Cause is unknown
Bone Markings Bone Markings
W Bulges, depressions, and holes that serve as:
W Sites oI attachment Ior muscles, ligaments, and
tendons
W Joint surIaces
W Conduits Ior blood vessels and nerves
W Tuberosity rounded projection
W Crest narrow, prominent ridge oI bone
W Trochanter large, blunt, irregular surIace
W Line narrow ridge oI bone
Bone Markings: Bone Markings:
Projections Projections -- Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment
W Tubercle small rounded projection
W picondyle raised area above a condyle
W Spine sharp, slender projection
W Process any bony prominence
W Head bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
W Facet smooth, nearly Ilat articular surIace
W Condyle rounded articular projection
W Ramus armlike bar oI bone
Bone Bone Markings Markings: :
Projections %hat Hel5 Form 1oints Projections %hat Hel5 Form 1oints
Bone Markings: De5ressions and O5enings Bone Markings: De5ressions and O5enings
W Meatus canal-like passageway
W Sinus cavity within a bone
W Fossa shallow, basinlike depression
W roove Iurrow
W Fissure narrow, slitlike opening
W Foramen round or oval opening through a bone
lassification of Joints: lassification of Joints:
- Structural classification is based on 2aterial binding
bones together:
- 1) Fibrous
- 2) Cartilaginous
- 3) Synovial (fluid) joints
- Functional classification is based on the a2ount of
2ove2ent allowed by the joint
- 1) I22ovable
- 2) Slightly 2ovable
- 3) Freely 2ovable
Synovial Joints Synovial Joints
- Freely 2ovable
- Bones are
separated by a
joint cavity
filled with fluid
(synovial fluid)
- Exa2ples: all
li2b joints, and
2ost joints of
the body
Cartilaginous Joints Cartilaginous Joints
- Li2ited 2obility
- No joint cavity
Fibrous Joints Fibrous Joints
- Mobility is very li2ited
"&IZ: "&IZ:
I. TR& OR FALS
. TR& OR FALS. Bone is Iirst Iormed as collagen, which is latter, replaced by
cells that Iorm the bones.
2. TR& OR FALS. Yellow bone marrow is contained in the diaphysis oI the
long bones.
3. TR& OR FALS. Bone is nonliving tissue made oI cells that deposit minerals.
4. TR& OR FALS. Haversian canals oI long bones are Iilled with yellow bone
marrow.
5. TR& OR FALS. Spongy bone is the outside layer oI compact bone.
6. TR& OR FALS. Cartilage is a type oI connective tissue that contains bloods
vessels and nerves.
7. TR& OR FALS. The bones oI the knee are connected by semi movable joints.
8. TR& OR FALS. The elbow is an example oI a pivot joint.
9. TR& OR FALS. Tendons attach bones to bones.
. TR& OR FALS. The hip attachment oI the bones is called the pectoral girdle
and the shoulder attachment is called the pelvic girdle.
II. M&LTIPL CHOIC:
. Degeneration oI cartilage causes
a) menopause b) bone replacement c) bone Iractures d) osteoarthritis
2. omen are more susceptible than men to the eIIects oI osteoporosis
because:
a) their bones are smaller than those oI men b) they lose calcium during
child bearing years c) sex hormones production declines during
menopause d) all oI the above
3. OI the Iollowing, the structure that is not part oI the axial skeleton is the
a) backbone b) pelvis c) rib cage d) skull
4. The type oI bone that provides the greatest strength Ior support is
a) spongy bone b) chitinous bone c) marrow bone d) compact bone
5. Yellow bone marrow
a) provides internal support to spongy bone c) produces red blood cells
b) is Iound only in lower vertebrates d) stores Iat
"uiz cont.. "uiz cont..
6. The periosteum is a section oI the bone that contains
a) blood vessels b) osteocytes c) spongy bone d) red bone marrow
7. In an embryo, the skeleton is originally made oI
a) red and yellow marrow c) cartilage
b) calcium phosphate d) osteopores
8. Bone loss may be slowed by
a) calcium b) regular exercise c) balance diet d) all oI the above
9. Osteocytes trapped within the spaces in the bone surrounding them
a) are called marrow cells
b) receive nutrients directly Irom cells oI the surrounding cartilage
c) are provided with Iood and oxygen by Haversian canals
d) eventually become osteoblasts as the bone matures
2. Connective tissues that connect muscles to bone
a) cartilage b) ligaments c) tendon d) none oI the above