Alexander-Sadiku

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

Chapter 7
First-Order Circuits
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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 First-Order Circuits
Chapter 7
7.1 The Source-Free RC Circuit
7.2 The Source-Free RL Circuit
7.3 Unit-step Function
7.4 Step Response of an RC Circuit
7.5 Step Response of an RL Circuit

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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (1)
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-
order differential equation.

By KCL
v dv
iR  iC  0 C 0
R dt

Ohms law Capacitor law

• Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuit results in

algebraic equations.
• Apply the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential
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equations.
 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (2)
• The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior
(in terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself,
with no external sources of excitation.

Time constant RC

Decays more slowly

Decays faster

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the

response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• v decays faster for small  and slower for large .
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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (3)
The key to working with a source-free RC circuit is
finding:

v (t )  V0 e  t /  where RC

1. The initial voltage v(0) = V0 across the

capacitor.
2. The time constant  = RC.
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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (4)
Example 1
Refer to the circuit below, determine vC, vx, and
io for t ≥ 0.
Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: vC = 30e–0.25t V ; vx = 10e–0.25t ; io = –2.5e–0.25t A
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 7.1 The Source-Free
RC Circuit (5)
Example 2
The switch in circuit below is opened at t = 0,
find v(t) for t ≥ 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: V(t) = 8e–2t V
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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (1)
• A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor
L (or its equivalent) and a resistor (or its
equivalent)
By KVL vL  vR  0
di
L  iR  0
dt

Inductors law Ohms law

di R Rt / L
  dt i (t )  I 0 e
i L
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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (2)

A general form representing a RL

t / 
i (t )  I 0 e
L
where 
R

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the response to
decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• i(t) decays faster for small  and slower for large .
• The general form is very similar to a RC source-free circuit. 9
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (3)
Comparison between a RL and RC circuit

A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit

L
i (t )  I 0 e t / 
where  v(t )  V0 e  t / where   RC
R

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 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (4)
The key to working with a source-free RL
circuit is finding:

 t / L
i (t )  I 0 e where 
R

1. The initial voltage i(0) = I0 through the

inductor.
2. The time constant  = L/R. 11
 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (5)
Example 3
Find i and vx in the circuit.

Assume that i(0) = 5 A.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = 5e–53t A 12

 7.2 The Source-Free
RL Circuit (6)
Example 4
For the circuit, find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i(t) = 2e–2t A 13

 7.3 Unit-Step Function (1)
• The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative
values of t and 1 for positive values of t.

 0, t0
u (t )  
1, t0

 0, t  to
u (t  to )  
1, t  to

 0, t   to
u (t  to )  
1, t   to
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 7.3 Unit-Step Function (2)
Represent an abrupt change for:

1. voltage source.

2. for current source:

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 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage
or a current source.
• Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0

• Applying KCL,
dv v  Vs u (t )
c  0
dt R
or
dv v  Vs
 u (t )
dt RC
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• Where u(t) is the unit-step function
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (2)
• Integrating both sides and considering the initial
conditions, the solution of the equation is:

V0 t0
v(t )   t / 
V
 s  (V0  V s ) e t 0

Final value Initial value Source-free

at t -> ∞ at t = 0 Response

Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response

(stored energy) (independent source)

= V0e–t/τ + Vs(1–e–t/τ) 17
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (3)
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RC circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage v() — DC
voltage across C.
3. The time constant .

 t /
v (t )  v ()  [v (0)  v ()] e
Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also
determine the solution by setting up the circuit formula directly
using KCL, KVL , ohms law, capacitor and inductor VI laws. 18
 7.4 The Step-Response
of a RC Circuit (4)
Example 5
Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in below.
Assume the switch has been open for a long
time and is closed at t = 0.
Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: v(t )  15e 2t  and

5 v(0.5) = 0.5182V 19
 7.5 The Step-response
of a RL Circuit (1)
• The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or
a current source.

• Initial current
i(0-) = i(0+) = Io

• Final inductor current

i(∞) = Vs/R

• Time constant  = L/R

t
Vs Vs  
i (t )   ( I o  )e u (t )
R R
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 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (2)
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RL circuit:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i().
3. The time constant .

 t /
i (t )  i ()  [i (0 )  i ()] e

Note: The above method is a short-cut method. You may also

determine the solution by setting up the circuit formula directly
using KCL, KVL , ohms law, capacitor and inductor VI laws. 21
 7.5 The Step-Response
of a RL Circuit (4)
Example 6
The switch in the circuit shown below has been
closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0.
Find i(t) for t > 0.

• Please refer to lecture or textbook for more detail elaboration.

Answer: i (t )  2  e 10t 22