ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

LOB3:
a) Identify the glands involved in the endocrine
system

b) List down hormones produced/ secreted by the

gland & Describe its effect on the body

LEARNING ISSUE
Explain gangrene

Amalia, Danial Arif, Fatin, Marsya, Thol’at, Haziqah

 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Composed of a group of glands placed throughout the body,
releases chemicals (hormones) that must travel through the
circulatory system to reach a target tissue or organ causing
that tissue or organ to effect a regulatory change.
MAJOR GLANDS IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

● Female Ovaries
● Thymus Gland
● Male Testis
● Adrenal Gland
● Pituitary Gland
● Pineal Gland
● Thyroid Gland
● Pancreas
● Parathyroid Glands
LOCATION & STRUCTURE OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS INSIDE THE BODY
Female Ovaries Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Gland
- Small, oval-shaped glands located - Located at the posterior
- A butterfly-like
on either side of the uterus
shape, which is back surface of the
found in the front of thyroid.
Male Testis the neck, below the - There are 4 parathyroid
- 2 oval-shaped that glands, a superior and
larynx and on top of
are found inside the
the trachea inferior pair on the left
scrotum
and right sides of the
thyroid.
Pituitary Glands
- Small, pea-sized gland
located at the base of brain
Pineal Glands
below the hypothalamus
- A small and pine cone- shaped,
located at the back region in the
Adrenal Glands brain
- Pyramid-shaped
organs that sit at the
top of each kidney.
Pancreas Glands
Thymus Gland - An elongated, tapered organ
- A soft organ with two lobes located across the back of the belly,
located in the upper chest, behind the stomach
behind the breastbone, in front
of the ascending aorta
LOCATION & STRUCTURE OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS INSIDE THE BODY
 Female Ovaries
ESTROGEN
sexual development:
- Responsible for growth and continued development of the
PROGESTERONE
reproductive anatomy as well as development of breasts and growth
of pubic and armpit hair during puberty menstruation:
- During ovulation, corpus luteum forms from the
menstrual cycle: empty egg follicle and begins producing
- If a woman does not get pregnant during a monthly cycle, the lining progesterone
of uterus sheds - Works by thickening the uterus lining and
- Estrogen is responsible for building up the lining of uterus every creating a good environment for a fertilized egg to
month in preparation for pregnancy implant

bone development and health: pregnancy:

- Regulates bone turnover in adult bones and protects against bone - Progesterone level is high in pregnant women
loss - It prevents the body from ovulating during
pregnancy
heart health: - It also suppresses uterine contractions which
- Helps protect against heart disease by keeping the blood vessels helps to avoid preterm labor
healthy, limit inflammation and control cholesterol level - Progesterone also helps the breasts to prepare
for breastfeeding
mood management:
- Affects how brain structures are connected, the way the brain cells
communicate and even the shape of the brain
- Has a very strong effect on serotonin (mood-balancing chemical)
produced with the help of estrogen.
 Male Testes
TESTOSTERONE
fetal development:
- The sex-related gene on the Y chromosome initiates the development of
testicles in male infants which produce testosterone
- It triggers the development of the male internal and external
reproductive organs during fetal development

puberty:
- Responsible for changes in children during puberty which includes
increase in height, growth of body and pubic hair and enlargement of their
penis, testes and prostate gland

adulthood:
- Essential for the production of sperm
- Signals the body to make new red blood cells
- Ensure the bones and muscles are strong
 Pituitary Gland
HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE (HGH) ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)
- Triggers growth in nearly every tissue and organ in the - Its main function is to stimulate your adrenal glands
body. to release cortisol which is known as the “stress
- It’s most well-known for its growth-promoting effect on hormone”
cartilage and bone. Cells in cartilage called chondrocytes - Also plays a role in stimulating adrenal glands to
and cells in bones called osteoblasts receive signals from release androgens (sex hormones) and stimulating
HGH to increase replication and thus allow for growth in the production of chemical substances that
size stimulate an increase in other hormones such as
- Once the growth plates in a child’s bones have fused, HGH adrenaline and noradrenaline
no longer increases height, instead, helps to maintain
normal body structure throughout the rest of the life.
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH) LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) &
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)
- releases to trigger the thyroid to produce and release
its own hormones : thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine - FSH and LH work together during puberty which
(T3) which are essential for maintaining body’s metabolic begins the changes toward sexual maturity and
rate development
- T4 and T3 also maintain the heart and digestive - In male, FSH and LH work together to trigger their
functions, muscle control, brain development and bone testes to begin producing testosterone whilst in
maintenance female, FSH and LH trigger their ovaries to begin
producing estrogen
 PROLACTIN MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)
- It promotes the growth of a - In response to ultraviolet radiation, its
certain type of breast tissue called production by the skin and pituitary is
mammary alveoli, which are the enhanced which plays a key role in producing
components of the mammary coloured pigmentation found in the skin, hair
gland where the production of milk
and eyes.
occurs.
- It also stimulates the breast
- This is done by inducing specialised skin
alveolar cells to create milk cells called melanocytes to produce a
components, including Lactose pigment called melanin
(the carbohydrate component of
milk), Casein (the protein
component of milk) and Lipids
(components that provide energy,
essential fatty acids and
cholesterol).
 Thyroid gland
What does the thyroid gland do?
The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate the body's metabolic rate, growth and
development. It plays a role in controlling heart, muscle and digestive function, brain development
and bone maintenance. Its proper functioning is dependent on a sufficient quantity of iodine in the
diet. Cells producing thyroid hormones are highly specialized for extracting and absorbing iodine
from the blood before combining it into the thyroid hormones.
Hormones produced by the thyroid gland:
1. Thyroxine (T4)
- less active
- once released, certain organs transform it into:

2. Triiodothyronine (T3)
- transformation occurs through de-iodination
- because cells that have receptors that receive the effect of thyroid hormone are able to use T3
better than T4.

3. Calcitonin
- help regulate calcium levels in your blood by decreasing it
-isn’t grouped into the “thyroid hormone” name - doesn’t impact metabolism like T3 and T4
The effects of T4 and T3 on the body:
● Regulating the rate at which the body uses calories (energy) - this affects weight loss
or weight gain (metabolic rate).
● Slowing down or speeding up heart rate.
● Raising or lowering body temperature.
● Influencing the speed at which food moves through the digestive tract.
● Affecting brain development.
● Controlling the way your muscles contract.
● Managing skin and bone maintenance by controlling the rate at which your body
replaces dying cells.
 Parathyroid gland
What does the parathyroid gland do?
When the body detects low calcium levels in the blood, the parathyroid gland releases:

1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

● Function: regulate the amounts of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium in the bones and
blood.

● PTH regulates calcium levels by affecting:

○ Bones: PTH stimulates the release of small amounts of calcium from the bones into your
bloodstream.
○ Kidneys: PTH enables the production of active vitamin D (calcitriol) in your kidneys. PTH
also signals the kidneys to retain calcium in your body rather than flushing it out
through urine.
○ Small intestine: PTH signals the small intestine to absorb more calcium from the food
you eat.

Once your parathyroid glands release PTH when you have low blood calcium levels, the PTH is only active in your body
for a few minutes. When your blood calcium levels rise, your parathyroid glands stop releasing PTH.
 Thymus gland
What does the thymus gland do?
Thymus gland’s primary function is maturing T cells/T lymphocytes. These are white blood cells
responsible for fighting infections/aiding in immunity.

Hormones released by the thymus gland and their effects on the body:
1. Thymopoietin
- fuels the production of T-cells and tells the pituitary gland to release hormones.
1. Thymosin & thymulin
- help make specialized types of T-cells.
1. Thymic humoral factor
- keeps your immune system working properly.
1. Melatonin
- a sleep-regulating hormone that comes from the pineal gland
1. Insulin
- a blood sugar regulating hormone made by the pancreas
1. Growth hormone
- a growth-regulating hormone from the pituitary gland
1. Prolactin
- a breast-development hormone from the pituitary gland
Pancreas
- Made up of Group of Cells called Glucagon
“Islets of Langerhans” - Glucagon is released when
- Contain two Cell type: there is low blood sugar in the
1. Alpha cell secretes hormone body.
Glucagon - Binds in the cell of liver where it
2. Beta cell secretes hormone converts glycogen and amino
Insulin acid into glucose
- Thus increase blood glucose

Insulin
- Insulin is released when there is
high blood sugar in the body
- Stimulates the uptake of
glucose by muscle cells, fat cells
and the liver for respiration
- Thus decrease blood glucose
Pineal Gland
Secretes Melatonin
- Regulate the Circadian Rhythm

Circadian Rhythm
- It is the cycle of physical mental
and behavior changes that the
body is going through in a 24
hours cycle

- The schedule is regulated by the

retina of the eye, received from
the light

- Melatonin is High during the

Night and Low during the Day
Adrenal Gland
It is called Ad”Renal” : on top of
the kidney

Consists of two parts

1. Cortex
2. Medulla

The Cortex is divided into the

parts
3. Zona Reticular
4. Zona Fasciculata
5. Zona Glomerulosa
Adrenal Gland(Cortex)
(Zona Reticularis)
- Secretes Aldosterone
- Deals with Salts
- It is a Corticosteroid
Effects:
- Secretes when Blood - Increased tubular reabsorption of Na+ and Cl-
Volume or Blood Pressure into the bloodstream.
or Sodium ions Drops
detected by the kidney - Increase water retention, thus inc Blood
Pressure and Blood Volume.
- The hormones released by
the Zona Reticular targets - Increase excretion of potassium, thus dec of
the nephrons primarily plasma potassium
- Distal convoluted
tubules - Stimulate nephrone to secrete protons (H+), to
- Collecting duct regulate PH
Adrenal Gland(Cortex)
(Zona Fasciculata)
- Secretes Cortisol
(a glucocorticoid)
- Deals with Sugar
- It is a Corticosteroid Effects:
- Increased Appetite
- Secretes during stress
- Increased Blood Pressure
- Starts from the pituitary
gland secretes ACTH and - Increase Insulin Resistance
targets towards Zona
Fasciculata, where it - Increase Gluconeogenesis, lipolysis
produces the Hormone
Cortisol - Decrease Fibroblast activity( wound healing)

- Decrease Immune and Inflammatory activity

- Decrease bone formation

Adrenal Gland(Cortex)
(Zona Glomerulosa)
- Secretes Androgen
(a Gonadocorticoids)
- Deals with sex hormones
Effects:
- Involves the Testis and - Increase Development of Sexual
Ovaries Characteristic of Men:
- The Hormone helps - Facial and Body Hair
produce Testosterone and - Voice Change
Estrogen - Bone muscle Development
- Effect Metabolism
- Starts from the pituitary
gland secretes ACTH and - For Females (Estrogen)
targets towards Zona - Regulate menstrual cycle
Glomerulosa, where it
produces the Hormone
weak Androgen
Adrenal Gland(Medulla)
(Chromaffin cells) Effects:
- Secretes Epinephrine - Increase Heart Rate and
Contractility
- Another name of it is
Adrenaline - Increase Blood Pressure

- It is the “Fight or Flight - Increase Bronchodilators

Response”
- Increase Pupil Dilation
- When undergoing Stress
Response
 Learning issue:
What is gangrene?
How does it come about?
 GANGRENE
Gangrene is death of body tissue
due to a lack of blood flow or a
serious bacterial infection.
Gangrene commonly affects the
arms and legs, including the toes
and fingers.

A condition that can damage the

blood vessels and affect blood flow,
such as diabetes or hardened
arteries (atherosclerosis), increases
the risk of gangrene
 RISK FACTORS OF GANGRENE
● Diabetes
● Atherosclerosis – where the arteries become clogged up with a
fatty substance called plaque, narrowing them and restricting
blood flow
● Peripheral arterial disease – where a build-up of fatty deposits
in the arteries restricts blood supply to leg muscles
● Raynaud's syndrome – Cold temperatures affect the blood
vessels in your fingers and toes. Your blood vessels constrict
(narrow), limiting blood flow.
● Severe injury or surgery – Any process that causes trauma to
the skin and underlying tissue, including frostbite, increases the
risk of gangrene. The risk is greater if you have an underlying
condition that affects blood flow to the injured area.
● Smoking
● Obesity – Extra weight can push on arteries, slowing blood flow
and increasing the risk of infection and poor wound healing.
● Immunosuppression – Chemotherapy, radiation and certain
infections, such as HIV, can affect the body's ability to fight off
infections.
SYMPTOMS OF GANGRENE
● Changes in skin colour (from red to brown, and ultimately to
purple or greenish black).
● Swelling of the skin in the affected area
● Either a loss of sensation or severe pain in the affected area
● Sores or blisters in the affected area
● A foul-smelling discharge leaking from a sore
● Skin that feels cool or cold to the touch

CAUSES OF GANGRENE
● Lack of blood supply – The blood provides oxygen and nutrients
to the body. It also provides the immune system with antibodies to
fight infections. Without a proper blood supply, cells can't survive.
Infections can also develop and your tissues may start to die.
● Infection – An untreated bacterial infection can cause gangrene.
● Traumatic injury – Gunshot wounds or crushing injuries from car
crashes can cause open wounds that let bacteria into the body. If
the bacteria infect tissues and remain untreated, gangrene can
occur.
 TREATMENT FOR GANGRENE
Surgery to remove the dead tissue – This is called debridement. It
can help keep the gangrene from spreading to healthy tissues
nearby. In cases where the gangrene is widespread, a finger, toe, or
even a limb may need to be amputated.

Antibiotics – These medicines can be used to kill bacteria in the

affected area. They are used only when wet gangrene is present

Amputation – In severe cases of gangrene, where a whole body

part, such as a finger, toe, or limb, is affected and debridement is
unlikely to help, amputation may be considered. Amputation can
prevent gangrene spreading to other parts of the body
Female ovaries- SUMMARY
secreated Estrogen and Gangrene is a medical condition
progesterone Pineal Gland characterized by the death and
Male testes- secreated Melatonin decay of body tissue, typically
secreated testosterone Adrenal gland caused by a lack of blood supply
Pituitary Gland- Secreated aldostrerone, due to injury, infection, or
secreated HDH, TSH, ACTH, LH, cortisol , androgen, underlying health conditions
epinepherine such as diabetes.
FSH, MSH, prolactin
Thyroid gland- Risk factor of gangrene:
secreated T4 T3 Calcitonin Diabetes, atheroclerosis,
Parathyroid Gland- peripheral arterial dieseas,
raynaud’s syndrom, severe
secreated PTH
injury or surgery, smoking,
Thymus Gland
oebsity, immunosuppression
secreated thymopoietin, Causes
thymosin& thymulin, thymic Lack Of blood supply,
humoral factor, melatonin, infection, traumatic injury
insulin, growth hormone, Treatment,
prolactin Surgery, antibiotic,
Pancreas amputation
secreated glucagon, insulin,
Thank you for listening
Any questions?