What is a Microprocessor?

 Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) is called a
microprocessor.
 A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU is called microcomputer.
 It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based electronic device that reads binary
instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data according
to those instructions and provides results as output.
 The microprocessor contains millions of tiny components like transistors, registers, and diodes that work
together.
 A microprocessor is a tiny, enormously powerful high speed electronic brain etched on a single silicon
semiconductor chip which contains the basic logic, storage and arithmetic functions of a computer. It thinks
for the computer and, like a traffic cop, coordinates its operations. It receives and decodes instructions from
input devices like keyboards, disks then sends them over a bus system consisting of microscopic etched
conductive "wiring" to be processed by its arithmetic calculator and logic unit. The results are temporarily
stored in memory cells and released in a timed sequence through the bus system to output devices such as
CRT Screens, networks, or printers. In some cases, the terms 'CPU' and 'microprocessor' are used
interchangeably to denote the same device.
 Block Diagram of a Microcomputer

 A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register array. Where ALU performs arithmetic and
logical operations on the data received from an input device or memory. Control unit controls the instructions
and flow of data within the computer. And, register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C,
D, E, H, L, and accumulator.
 Evolution of Microprocessors
We can categorize the microprocessor according to the generations or according to the size of the microprocessor:
First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)
 The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel Corporation. It was named Intel
4004 since it was a 4-bit processor.
 It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple arithmetic and logical operations such as addition, subtraction,
Boolean OR and Boolean AND.
Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)
 The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It was a first 8 - bit microprocessor which
could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. It was Intel 8008, and another improved version was Intel
8088.
Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)
 The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's 8086, Zilog Z800 and 80286, which
were 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.
Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)
 Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is the Intel 80386.
Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)
 From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor namely Pentium
processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a single system to achieve multiprocessing.
 Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa Core processors.
 Basic Terms used in Microprocessor

 Instruction Set - The group of commands that the microprocessor can understand is called Instruction set. It is
an interface between hardware and software.
 Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or control information to different elements in a
microprocessor. A microprocessor will have three types of buses, i.e., data bus, address bus, and control bus.
 IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many instructions a CPU is capable of executing in a
single clock.
 Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the processor can perform. It can be expressed in
megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also called the Clock Rate.
 Bandwidth - The number of bits processed in a single instruction is called Bandwidth.
 Word Length - The number of bits the processor can process at a time is called the word length of the
processor. 8-bit Microprocessor may process 8 -bit data at a time. The range of word length is from 4 bits to
64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.
 Data Types - The microprocessor supports multiple data type formats like binary, ASCII, signed and unsigned
numbers.
 Working of Microprocessor & Features of Microprocessor
 The microprocessor follows a sequence to execute the instruction: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute. Initially, the
instructions are stored in the storage memory of the computer in sequential order. The microprocessor fetches those
instructions from the stored area (memory), then decodes it and executes those instructions till STOP instruction is met.
Then, it sends the result in binary form to the output port. Between these processes, the register stores the temporary data
and ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) performs the computing functions.
Features of Microprocessor
 Low Cost - Due to integrated circuit technology microprocessors are available at very low cost. It will reduce the cost of
a computer system.
 High Speed - Due to the technology involved in it, the microprocessor can work at very high speed. It can execute
millions of instructions per second.
 Small Size - A microprocessor is fabricated in a very less footprint due to very large scale and ultra large scale
integration technology. Because of this, the size of the computer system is reduced.
 Versatile - The same chip can be used for several applications, therefore, microprocessors are versatile.
 Low Power Consumption - Microprocessors are using metal oxide semiconductor technology, which consumes less
power.
 Less Heat Generation - Microprocessors uses semiconductor technology which will not emit much heat as compared to
vacuum tube devices.
 Reliable - Since microprocessors use semiconductor technology, therefore, the failure rate is very less. Hence it is very
reliable.
 Portable - Due to the small size and low power consumption microprocessors are portable.
 Basics of Microprocessor
A Microprocessor takes a bunch of instructions in machine language and executes them, telling the processor
what it has to do. Microprocessor performs three basic things while executing the instruction:
 It performs some basic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and some logical
operations using its Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU). New Microprocessors also perform operations on
floating-point numbers also.
 Data in microprocessors can move from one location to another.
 It has a Program Counter (PC) register that stores the address of the next instruction based on the value of the
PC, Microprocessor jumps from one location to another and takes decisions.
 Microprocessor based Systems
 Microprocessor Based System is one of the great technological inventions in recent time. Microprocessor is
multipurpose, programmable equipment that accepts digital signals as the input source and processes it
according to instructions stored in Microprocessor’s memory, and provides results as output.
 Microprocessor Based System are normally connected on a PCB device which comprising a microprocessor
CPU together with a number of support chips. Microprocessor Based System was introduced by Intel
cooperation of America, and this device contains 2300 transistors into single chip, which fabricated by using
MOS technology.
Applications of Microprocessor Based System
This type of microprocessor used various types of applications such as.
Pocket Calculators Consumer Products
Laboratory equipment’s Games and Toys
Control systems
Input devices of Microprocessor Based System Output Devices of Microprocessor Based System
Switches Sensors Alarm Lamps Printers
Convertors Keyboard Indicators CRT/LCD/LED display
Mouse
 Component of Microprocessor Based System
Normally, micro processor consists with following components.
 Data bus.
 Control bus
 Address bus
 Programm Counter
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit
 Registers
 Clock device

 The basic operation of a Microprocessor is the input components provide data an instruction to
Microprocessor, which subsequently stored in the memory unit and those data are processed by Arithmetic
and Logic unit so the result is sent to other output nit.
 Instruction set
 An instruction set is a group of commands for a central processing unit (CPU) in machine language. The term
can refer to all possible instructions for a CPU or a subset of instructions to enhance its performance in
certain situations.
 All CPUs have instruction sets that enable commands directing the CPU to switch the relevant transistors.
 The instructions tell the CPU to perform tasks. Some instructions are simple read, write and move
commands that direct data to different hardware elements.
 The instructions are made up of a specific number of bits. For instance, The CPU's instructions might be 8
bits, where the first 4 bits make up the operation code that tells the computer what to do. The next 4 bits are
the operand, which tells the computer the data that should be used.

Uses of instruction set commands

 Data handling and memory management. Instruction set commands are used when setting a register to a
specific value, copying data from memory to a register or vice versa, and reading and writing data.
 Arithmetic and logic operations and activities. These commands include add, subtract, multiply, divide
and compare, which examines values in two registers to see if one is greater or less than the other.
 Control flow activities. One example is branch, which instructs the system to go to another location and
execute commands there. Another is jump, which moves to a specific memory location or address.
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
 The microprocessor is the CPU (Central Processing Unit) of a computer.
 It is the heart of the computer. Here, we will describe Intel 8085 as it is one of the most popular 8-bit
microprocessor.
Intel 8085
 Intel 8085 is an 8-bit, NMOS microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977.
It has following configuration:
 It is a 40 pin I.C. package fabricated on a single LSI chip.
 The Intel 8085 uses a single +5Vd.c. supply for its operation.
 Intel 8085?s clock speed is about 3 MHz; the clock cycle is of 320ns.
 8 ?bit data bus.
 Address bus is of 16-bit, which can address up to 64KB
 16-bit stack pointer
 16 bit PC (Program Counter)
 Six 8-bit registers are arranged in pairs :BC, DE, HL
 Intel 8085 is used in mobile phones, microwave ovens, washing machines etc.
 The below diagram shows the block diagram of Intel 8085:
MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE/Block diagram of Intel 8085
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
ALU
 The Arithmetic and Logic Unit, ALU performs the arithmetic and logical operations:
 Addition
 Subtraction
 Logical AND
 Logical OR
 Logical EXCLUSIVE OR
 Complement (Logical NOT)
 Increment (add 1)
 Decrement (subtract 1)
 Left shift, Rotate left, Rotate right
 Clear, etc.
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
Timing and Control Unit
 The timing and control unit is the section of the CPU.
 It is used to generate timing and control signals which are necessary for the execution of instructions.
 It is used to control data flow between CPU and peripherals (including memory).
 It is used to provide status, control and timing signals which are required for the operation of memory and I/O devices.
 It is used to control the entire operations of the microprocessor and peripherals connected to it.
 Thus we can see that the control unit of the CPU acts as the brain of the computer system.
Registers
 Registers are used for temporary storage and manipulation of data and instructions by the microprocessor.
 Data remain in the registers till they are sent to the I/O devices or memory.
Intel 8085 microprocessor has the following registers:
 One 8-bit accumulator (ACC) i.e. register A
 Six general purpose registers of 8-bit, these are B,C, D, E, H and L
 One 16-bit stack pointer, SP
 One 16-bit Program Counter, PC
 Instruction register
 Temporary register
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
 In addition to the above mentioned registers the 8085 microprocessor contains a set of five flip-flops which
serve as flags (or status flags).
 A flag is a flip-flop which indicates some conditions which arises after the execution of an arithmetic or
logical instruction.
Accumulator (ACC): The accumulator is an 8-bit register associated with the ALU. The register 'A' is an
accumulator in the 8085. It is used to hold one of the operands of an arithmetic and logical operation. The final
result of an arithmetic or logical operation is also placed in the accumulator.
General-Purpose Registers: The 8085 microprocessor contains six 8-bit general purpose registers. They are: B,
D, C, E, H and L register. To hold data of 16-bit a combination of two 8-bit registers can be employed. The
combination of two 8-bit registers is called register pair. The valid register pairs in the 8085 are: D-E, B-C and
H-L. The H-L pair is used to act as a memory pointer.
Program Counter (PC): It is a 16-bit special purpose register. It is used to hold the address of memory of the
next instruction to be executed. It keeps the track of the instruction in a program while they are being executed.
Stack Pointer (SP): It is a 16-bit special function register used as memory pointer. A stack is nothing but a
portion of RAM. In the stack, the contents of only those registers are saved, which are needed in the later part
of the program.
The stack pointer (SP) controls the addressing of the stack. The Stack Pointer contains the address of the top
element of data stored in the stack
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
Instruction Register: The instruction register holds the opcode (operation code or instruction code) of the
instruction which is being decoded and executed.
Temporary Register: It is an 8-bit register associated with the ALU. It holds data during an arithmetic/logical
operation. It is used by the microprocessor. It is not accessible to programmer.
Flags: The Intel 8085 microprocessor contains five flip-flops to serve as a status flags. The flip-flops are reset
or set according to the conditions which arise during an arithmetic or logical operation.
The five status flags of Intel 8085 are:
 Carry Flag (CS)
 Parity Flag (P)
 Auxiliary Carry Flag (AC)
 Zero Flag(Z)
 Sign Flag(S)
Data and Address Bus
 The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor. Its data bus is 8-bit wide and therefore, 8 bits of data can be
transmitted in parallel from or to the microprocessor.
 The Intel 8085 requires an address bus of 16-bit wide as the memory addresses are of 16-bits.
 The 8 most significant bits of the address are transmitted by the address bus, A-bus (pins A8 ? A15).
 The 8 least significant bits of the address are transmitted by data/address bus, AD-bus (pins AD0 ? AD7).
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
Pin Configuration Address Bus and Data Bus

 A8 ? A15 (Output): These are address bus and are used for the most significant
bits of the memory address or 8-bits of I/O address.
 AD0 ? AD7 (Input/output): These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they
serve dual purpose. They are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory
address or I/O address during the first cycle. Again they are used for data during
2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
 IO/M (Output): It is a status signal which distinguishes whether the address is for
memory or I/O device.
 S0, S1 (Output): These are status signals sent by the microprocessors to
distinguish the various types of operation given in table below:
Status codes for Intel 8085
S1 S0 Operations
0 0 HALT/Stop/Close
0 1 WRITE
1 0 READ
1 1 FETCH
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
 RD (Output): RD is a signal to control READ operation. When it goes low, the selected I/O device or
memory is read.
 WR (Output): WR is a signal to control WRITE operation. When it goes low, the data bus' data is written into
the selected memory or I/O location.
 READY (Input): It is used by the microprocessor to sense whether a peripheral is ready to transfer a data or
not. If READY is high, the peripheral is ready. If it is low the micro processor waits till it goes high.
 Interrupts and Externally Initiated Signals
 HOLD (INPUT): HOLD indicates that another device is requesting for the use of the address and data bus.
 HLDA (OUTPUT): HLDA is a signal for HOLD acknowledgement which indicates that the HOLD request
has been received. After the removal of this request the HLDA goes low.
 INTR (Input): INTR is an Interrupt Request Signal. Among interrupts it has the lowest priority. The INTR is
enabled or disabled by software.
 INTA (Output): INTA is an interrupt acknowledgement sent by the microprocessor after INTR is received.
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
8085 Instructions
 An instruction of computer is a command given to the computer to perform a specified operation on given
data. Some instructions of Intel 8085 microprocessor are: MOV, MVI, LDA, STA, ADD, SUB, RAL, INR,
MVI, etc.
Opcode and Operands
 Each instruction contains two parts: Opcode (Operation code) and Operand.
 The 1st part of an instruction which specifies the task to be performed by the computer is called Opcode.
 The 2nd part of the instruction is the data to be operated on, and it is called Operand. The Operand (or data)
given in the instruction may be in various forms such as 8-bit or 16-bit data, 8-bit or 16-bit address, internal
registers or a register or memory location.
Instruction Word Size
 A digital computer understands instruction written in binary codes (machine codes).
 The binary codes of all instructions are not of the same length.
 According to the word size, the Intel 8085 instructions are classified into the following three types:
 One byte instruction
 Two byte instruction
 Three byte instruction
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
One-byte instruction:
Examples of one byte instructions are:
 MOV A, B - Move the content of the register B to register A.
 ADD B ? Add the content of register B to the content of the accumulator.
 All the above two examples are only one byte long. All one-byte instructions contain information regarding
operands in the opcode itself.
Two-byte instruction:
 In a two byte instruction the first byte of the instruction is its opcode and the second byte is either data or address.
Example:
MVI B, 05; 05 moved to register B.
Three-byte instruction:
 The first byte of the instruction is its opcode and the second and third bytes are either 16-bit data or 16-bit address.
Example:
LXI H, 2400H; Load H-L Pair with 2400H
 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE
Instruction Cycle
 The time required to fetch an instruction and necessary data from memory and to execute it, is called an instruction cycle.
Or the total time required to execute an instruction is given by:
IC = FC + EC
Where,
IC = Instruction Cycle
FC = Fetch Cycle
EC = Execute Cycle Fetch the instruction (Fetch Cycle)
 In the beginning of the fetch cycle, the content of the program counter (PC), which is
the address of the memory location where opcode is available, is sent to the memory.
The memory puts the opcode on the data bus so as to transfer it to the CPU.
Decode the instruction (Decode Cycle)
 The opcode fetched from the memory goes to the data register, DR and then to
instruction register, IR. From the IR it goes to the decoder circuitry which decodes the
instruction. Decoder circuitry is within the microprocessor.
Execute the Instruction (Execute Cycle)
 After the instruction is decoded, execution begins. If the operand is reside the general
purpose registers, execution is immediately performed. The time taken in decoding and
execution of an instruction is one clock cycle.
 In some situations, an execute cycle may involve one or more read or write cycles or
both.
 Memory and I/O Interfacing
 Several memory chips and I/O devices are connected to a microprocessor.
 The following figure shows a schematic diagram to interface memory chips and I/O devices to a
microprocessor.
Memory Interfacing
 When we are executing any instruction, the address of memory
location or an I/O device is sent out by the microprocessor. The
corresponding memory chip or I/O device is selected by a decoding
circuit.
 Memory requires some signals to read from and write to registers and
microprocessor transmits some signals for reading or writing data.
 The interfacing process includes matching the memory requirements
with the microprocessor signals. Therefore, the interfacing circuit
should be designed in such a way that it matches the memory signal
requirements with the microprocessor's signals.
I/O interfacing
 As we know, keyboard and displays are used as communication
channel with outside world. Therefore, it is necessary that we interface
keyboard and displays with the microprocessor. This is called I/O
interfacing.
 Classification of Memory
 In computers, memory is the most essential component of the normal functioning of any system. The
computer system categorizes the memory for different purposes and uses.
 Computer memory is any physical device, used to store data, information or instruction temporarily or
permanently. It is the collection of storage units that stores binary information in the form of bits. The
memory block is split into a small number of components, called cells.
 Memory Structure and Its Requirements:
 Read/Write memory is a group of registers to store binary information
 a typical R/W memory chip; it has “2n = M” registers (where n= no. of address lines) and each can store N
no. of bits.
 It has N no. of bidirectional (or separate input-output) data lines.
 It also has one Chip select (CS), and two control lines Read (RD) to enable the output buffer and Write (WR)
to enable the input buffer.
 the logic diagram of typical EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only memory) Memory with “2n = M”
registers (where n= no. of address lines).
 It has “n” no. of address lines, one Chip select (CS) and one Read (RD).
 This memory chip must be programmed before it can be used as Read-Only memory.
Memory Structure and Its Requirements:
 Group Assignment One (15%)
 CPU vs. microprocessor: What are the differences?

 Discus in detail about the various types of instruction sets?

 Discus the various types of microprocessor?

 Discus in detail about flags and flip flop?

 Explain the different application of microprocessor?

 Differentiate data bus, address bus, and control bus?

 Explain in detail about: -Primary or Main Memory, Random Access Memory (RAM), DRAM: DRAM (Dynamic
Random-Access Memory), Characteristics of DRAM, SRAM: SRMA (Static Random-Access Memory), SRAM Vs.
DRAM, Advantages of RAM, Disadvantages of RAM, Read-Only Memory (ROM), Types of ROM, Advantages of
ROM, Disadvantages of ROM, RAM Vs. ROM, Secondary Memory, Features of Secondary Memory, Types of
Secondary Memory, Types of CDs, Cache Memory, Advantages of Cache Memory, Disadvantage of Cache Memory,
Register Memory, Primary Vs. Secondary Memory?