CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Discovery of electron, proton and neutron,

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Discovery of Electron
• Scientists mainly Faraday performed experiments using cathode ray
discharge tubes.
• A cathode ray tube is made of glass containing two thin pieces of
metal, called electrodes, sealed in it.
• At very low pressure and at very high voltages, a stream of
particles moving in the tube from the negative electrode (cathode)
to the positive electrode (anode) was observed.
• These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles.
Discovery of Electron
• The flow of a stream of particles from cathode to anode was further checked by
Giving off light
using perforated anode and coating the tube behind anode with after radiation
phosphorescent material zinc sulphide. has hit it

• When these rays, after passing through anode, strike the zinc sulphide coating, a
bright spot is developed on the coating
• These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with
the help of certain kind of materials (fluorescent or phosphorescent) which glow
when hit by them.
• Television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes and television pictures result due
to fluorescence on the television screen coated with certain fluorescent or
phosphorescent materials. Fluorescent materials cease to glow nearly
immediately when the radiation source stops,
unlike phosphorescent materials, which
continue to emit light for some time after.
Characteristics of Cathode Rays
• Travel in straight line.
• Consist of Particles.
• Particles consisting cathode rays are negatively charged
• Cathode rays can ionize gas.
• They can heat objects that they hit
• Charge/mass ratio of the particles is independent of nature of material of electrode and
nature of gas present in Cathode ray tube.
• These particles were named as electron by J.J Thomson
Characteristic of electron
• Electrons are negatively charged.
• Represented by e or
• J.J. Thomson measured the (charge to mass)ratio of the electrons.
• This is = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1
• R.A. Millikan, using oil drop experiment, determined the charge on the electrons.
• The present accepted value of electrical charge is – 1.602176 × 10 –19 C
Discovery of Protons
• In 1886 Goldstein discovered existence of positively charged rays in the discharge tube by using
perforated cathode. These rays were named as anode rays or canal rays.
• The discovery of protons can be attributed to Rutherford.
Characteristics of Canal Rays
• Travel in straight line.
• Consists of Particles.
• Particles consisting of canal rays are positively charged
• Canal rays can ionize gas.
• They can heat objects that they hit
• Charge/mass ratio of the particles is depend on the nature of gas present in Cathode ray tube.
• The smallest and lightest positive particle was obtained from hydrogen and was called proton.
Characteristic of proton
• Protons are positively charged.
• Represented by p or
• The (charge to mass)ratio of the proton= 9.6 x 107C kg–1
• The charge on proton is + 1.602176 × 10–19 C

• It is 1837 times heavier than an electron

Discovery of Neutrons
• Neutrons were discovered by Chadwick (1932) by bombarding a thin sheet of
beryllium by a-particles.
• It has no electrical charge i.e. it is neutral
• It is represented as ‘n’
• Its mass is slightly greater than that of proton
• It is 1842 times heavier than an electron
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Atomic Models-Thomson atomic model and Rutherford atomic model
• X-rays,
• Radioactivity
• Atomic Number, Mass Number , Isotopes, Isobars

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Thomson Model of Atom
• Thomson proposed that:
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons
are embedded(fixed firmly and deeply) in it.
(ii) The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the
atom as a whole is electrically neutral.
• Important features-
• Thomson’s model explained that atoms are electrically neutral,
• Mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the • Many different names are
atom given to this model, for
• Drawbacks:-The results of experiments carried out by other scientists example, plum pudding, raisin
could not be explained by this model pudding or watermelon.
Discovery of X-rays
• Wilhalm Röentgen (1845-1923) in 1895 showed that when electrons strike a material in the
cathode ray tubes, produce rays which can cause fluorescence in the fluorescent materials
placed outside the cathode ray tubes.
• Since Röentgen did not know the nature of the radiation, he named them X-rays and the
name is still carried on.
• It was noticed that X-rays are produced effectively when electrons strike the dense metal
anode, called targets.
• These are not deflected by the electric and magnetic fields and have a very high penetrating
power through the matter and that is the reason that these rays are used to study the interior
of the objects.
• These rays are of very short wavelengths (~0.1 nm) and possess electro-magnetic character
Radioactivity
• Discovered by-Henri Becqueral (1852-1908)
• Certain elements emit radiation on their own. These elements are known as radioactive elements and this
phenomenon is known as radioactivity
• This field was developed by Marie Curie, Piere Curie, Rutherford and Fredrick Soddy.
• Radioactive elements may emit three kinds of rays i.e., a, b- and g-rays .
• Rutherford found that a-rays consists of high energy particles carrying two units of positive charge and
four unit of atomic mass. He concluded that a- particles are helium nuclei as when a- particles combined
with two electrons yielded helium gas.
• b-rays are negatively charged particles similar to electrons.
• The g-rays are high energy radiations like X-rays, are neutral in nature and do not consist of particles.
• As regards penetrating power,
• a-particles < b-rays (100 times that of a–particles) < g-rays (1000 times of that a-particles).
Rutherford’s a–particle scattering experiment
• Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden)
bombarded very thin gold foil with a–particles
• The thin gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen
around it.
• Whenever a–particles struck the screen, a tiny flash of light was
produced at that point.

A gold foil was selected because gold is a-particles are

the most malleable metal and he wanted doubly-charged
as thin a layer as possible helium ions.
Observation of Rutherford’s a–particle scattering experiment
1. Most of the a–particles passed through the gold foil undeflected.
2. A small fraction of the a–particles was deflected by small angles.
3. A very few a–particles (~1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were
deflected by nearly 1800.
Conclusion form Rutherford’s a–particle scattering experiment
4. Most of the space in the atom is empty
5. The positive charge is concentrated in a very small volume
called nucleus .
6. The volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly small as
compared to the total volume of the atom. The radius of the
atom is about m, while that of nucleus is m.
Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom
1. The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is densely concentrated in
extremely small region called nucleus
2. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits.
3. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.

Rutherford’s model of atom resembles the solar

system in which the nucleus plays the role of sun
and the electrons that of revolving planets.
This is also known as planetary model of the atom
Atomic Number (Z) :-
• The number of protons present in the nucleus is equal to atomic number .
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
= number of electrons in a neutral atom
Nucleons:-
• Protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are collectively known as nucleons
Mass Number (A):-
• Sum of the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
• The total number of nucleons is termed as mass number (A) of the atom.
Mass number (A) = number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (n)

Notation for an atom

Problem 2.1
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in
Solution:- Z = 35, A = 80, species is neutral
Number of protons = number of electrons = Z = 35
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 80 – 35 = 45,
Problem 2.2
The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in a species are equal to 18, 16 and 16 respectively. Assign the
proper symbol to the species.
Solution:- The atomic number (Z)= number of protons = 16. The element is sulphur (S).
Mass number (A)= number of protons + number of neutrons = 16 + 16 = 32
Species is not neutral as the number of protons is not equal to electrons.
It is anion (negatively charged) with charge equal to excess electrons = 18 – 16 = 2.
Symbol is
Isotopes:-
• Atoms with same atomic number but different mass number are known as Isotopes.
• For example – 3 isotopes of hydrogen

• Isotopes of chlorine-

Isobars:-
• Atoms with same mass number but different atomic number are known as isobars.
• For example,
 Drawbacks of Rutherford Model
• The Rutherford model cannot explain the stability of an atom, if the motion of an electron is
described on the basis of the classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory.
• It says nothing about distribution of the electrons around the nucleus and the energies of these
electrons

Classical mechanics is a when a body is moving

theoretical science based on in an orbit, it undergoes
Newton’s laws of motion. It acceleration
specifies the laws of motion of
macroscopic objects According to the electromagnetic
theory of Maxwell, charged particles
when accelerated should emit
electromagnetic radiation
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Parameters of wave
• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Shortcomings of wave nature of the electromagnetic radiation
• diffraction and interference

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Proposed by James Maxwell
• When electrically charged particle moves under acceleration, alternating electrical and magnetic fields are
produced and transmitted.
• These fields are transmitted in the forms of waves called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiations.
• Light is the form of electromagnetic radiation.

• In earlier days (Newton) light was supposed to be made of particles (corpuscules).

• It was only in the 19th century when wave nature of light was established.
• Maxwell told that light waves are associated with oscillating electric and magnetic
character i.e. light is electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic wave
 Simple properties of electromagnetic wave or radiation

• The oscillating electric and magnetic fields produced by

oscillating charged particles are perpendicular to each other and
both are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave
• Electromagnetic waves do not require medium and can move in
vacuum.
• There are many types of electromagnetic radiations, which differ
from one another in wavelength (or frequency). These constitute
what is called electromagnetic spectrum
Simple properties of electromagnetic wave or radiation
• These radiations are characterised by the properties, namely,
• frequency (n ,nu) and wavelength (l, lambda).
• Wavelength:-distance between two successive wave crests or troughs. Its
SI unit is metre (m)
• Frequency:-number of waves that pass a given point in one second. The
SI unit for frequency (n ) is hertz (Hz, OR s–1),
• In vaccum all types of electromagnetic radiations travel at the same speed,
i.e., 3.0 × 108 m s–1 (2.997925 × 108 m s–1, to be precise). This is called
speed of light and is given the symbol ‘c‘.
• The frequency (n ), wavelength (l) and velocity of light (c) are related by
the equation c=nl
Wavenumber ( ).
• It is defined as the number of wavelengths per unit length.

• Its units are reciprocal of wavelength unit, i.e., m –1.

• However commonly used unit is cm–1.

• Amplitude is the distance between the midline of a wave and its crest or trough. It tells about
brightness, or intensity, of the wave
• The period is the time it takes a wave to complete one cycle. We measure the period in seconds, and
we symbolize it with the capital letter T
• Frequency is the number of cycles that are completed in one second.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Arrangement of all electromagnetic waves according to frequency and wavelength.

• Radio frequency region around 106Hz,

used for broadcasting;
• microwave region around 1010 Hz used
for radar;
• infrared region around 1013 Hz used for
heating;
• ultraviolet region around 1016Hz a
component of sun’s radiation.
• The small portion around 1015 Hz, is
called visible light. (l =380 to 700 nm) AM (Amplitude Modulation) and FM (Frequency
Modulation) are types of modulation (coding)
Problem 2.3
The Vividh Bharati station of All India Radio, Delhi, broadcasts on a frequency of 1,368 kHz (kilo hertz).
Calculate the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by transmitter. Which part of the
electromagnetic spectrum does it belong to?
Solution:-

This wavelength belongs to radio wave

Problem 2.4
The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to red (750 nm). Express these
wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). (1nm = 10-9 m)
Solution:- frequency of violet light

frequency of red light

Problem 2.5
Calculate (a) wavenumber and (b) frequency of yellow radiation having wavelength 5800 Å.
Solution:-
(a) Calculation of wavenumber ( )
l=5800Å = 5800 × 10-10m

(b) Calculation of the frequency (n )

Shortcomings of wave nature of the electromagnetic radiation
• Some of the experimental phenomenon such as diffraction and interference can be explained by the wave
nature of the electromagnetic radiation.
• However, following are some of the observations which could not be explained with the help of even the
electromagnetic theory of 19th century physics (known as classical physics):
• (i) the nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies (black -body radiation)
• (ii) ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it (photoelectric effect)
• (iii) variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature
• (iv) Line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen.
 Diffraction is the spreading of waves
around obstacles

Dispersion of Light’ is the

splitting of white light when it
passes through a glass prism
into its constituent spectrum
of colors

Refraction is the bending of light (it

also happens with sound, water and
other waves) as it passes from one
transparent substance into another.
Interference is the combination of two waves of the same or different
frequencies to give a wave whose distribution at each point in space is the
algebraic or vector sum of disturbances at that point resulting from each
interfering wave.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Black Body Radiation
• Planck’s Quantum Theory
• Photoelectric Effect

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Black -Body Radiation
• An ideal body, which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies
uniformly, is called a black body and the radiation emitted by such a
body is called black body radiation.
• In practice, no such body exists.
• Carbon black approximates fairly closely to black body.
• A good physical approximation to a black body is a cavity with a tiny
hole, which has no other opening.
• Any ray entering the hole will be reflected by the cavity walls and will
be eventually absorbed by the walls
Black -Body Radiation
• when an iron rod is heated in a furnace, it first turns to dull red and then
progressively becomes more and more red, then becomes white and
then becomes blue as the temperature becomes very high
• This means that red radiation is most intense at a particular temperature
and the blue radiation is more intense at another temperature.
• Frequency of the radiation emitted goes from a lower frequency to a
higher frequency as the temperature increases.
Black -Body Radiation
• The amount of light emitted (intensity of radiation) from a
black body and its spectral distribution depends only on its
temperature.
• At a given temperature, intensity of radiation emitted
increases with the increase of wavelength, reaches a
maximum value at a given wavelength and then starts
decreasing with further increase of wavelength.
• Also, as the temperature increases, maxima of the curve
shifts to short wavelength (higher frequency).
• These results could not be explained on the basis of the wave
theory of light.
Planck’s Quantum Theory
• Atoms and molecules emit or absorb energy only in discrete quantities (packets) and not in a continuous
manner.
• The smallest quantity (packet) of energy that can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic
A quantum of
radiation is called quantum. (Plural quanta) light is called
a photon
• The energy (E ) of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency (n )
Eαn E = hn h =Planck’s constant and has the value 6.626×10-34J s.
• A body can emit or absorb energy only in terms of integral multiple of hn
E=nhn n=0,1,2,3,. . . . . .

Energy is
quantized
Quantization of Energy
• The restriction of any property to discrete values is called
quantization
• Quantisation can be compared to standing on a staircase.
• A person can stand on any step of a staircase, but it is not
possible for him/her to stand in between the two steps.
• The energy can take any one of the values from the
following set, but cannot take on any values between them.
• E = 0, hu, 2hu, 3hu....nhu.....

With Quantum theory, Planck was able to explain

the distribution of intensity in the radiation from
black body as a function of frequency or wavelength
at different temperatures.
Photoelectric Effect
• Studies in 1887, by H. Hertz .
• Ejection of electrons from certain metals( for example potassium, rubidium, caesium etc.)
when light of suitable frequency falls on it, is called Photoelectric effect.

• Light of a particular frequency strikes a

clean metal surface inside a vacuum
chamber.
• Electrons are ejected from the metal and
are counted by a detector that measures
their kinetic energy.
Observations of photoelectric experiment:
• (i) The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the
surface, i.e., there is no time lag between the striking of light beam and the ejection of
electrons from the metal surface.
• (ii) The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
• (iii) For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency,n0 (also known as threshold
frequency) below which photoelectric effect is not observed. At a frequency n >n 0, the ejected
electrons come out with certain kinetic energy. The kinetic energies of these electrons increase
with the increase of frequency of the light used.
Photoelectric Effect
• All the above results could not be explained on the basis of laws of classical physics(wave theory)
• According to classical physics, the energy of the beam of light depends upon the brightness(intensity) of
the light.
• In other words, number of electrons ejected and kinetic energy associated with them should depend on
the brightness of light.
• But experiment it is verified that the number of electrons ejected does depend upon the brightness of
light, but the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons does not.
• Kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on frequency of incident light.
• For example, red light [n = (4.3 to 4.6) × 1014 Hz] of any brightness (intensity) may shine on a piece of
potassium metal for hours but no photoelectrons are ejected.
• But, as soon as even a very weak yellow light (n = 5.1–5.2 × 1014 Hz) shines on the potassium metal,
the photoelectric effect is observed. The threshold frequency (n0) for potassium metal is 5.0×1014 Hz.
Plots based on Observations of Photoelectric Effect
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect
• Einstein (1905) explained the photoelectric effect using Planck’s quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation
• He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
• When a photon of sufficient energy strikes an electron in the atom of the metal, it transfers its energy
instantaneously to the electron during the collision and the electron is ejected without any time lag or delay.
• Greater the energy possessed by the photon, greater will be transfer of energy to the electron and greater the
kinetic energy of the ejected electron.
• In other words, kinetic energy of the ejected electron is proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic
radiation.
Explanation of Photoelectric Effect
The energy of striking photon = hn
The minimum energy required to eject the electron = hn0 (also called work function, W0)

If hn > hn0

the kinetic energy of the photoelectron, =

According to Conservation of energy principle

=mass of electron and =velocity of ejected electron

A more intense beam of light consists of larger number of photons, consequently the number of
electrons ejected is also larger as compared to a beam of weaker intensity of light .
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Numerical based on photoelectric effect and Planck’s equation
• Emission and absorption spectra

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation
• Black body radiation and photoelectric effect - Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation or light
• Interference and diffraction - wave nature of electromagnetic radiation or light
• Light possesses both particle and wave-like properties, i.e., light has dual behaviour.
• Whenever radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle like properties
• And when radiation propagates , it exhibits wave like properties
E= hn Planck’s equation; E= mc2 Einstein equation;

p ,momentum, is is the
the characteristic characteristic
of particle of wave
Problem 2.6
Calculate energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose frequency is Hz.
Solution
Energy (E) of one photon E = hn
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s
n = 5×1014 s–1 (given)
E = (6.626 ×10–34 J s) × (5 ×1014 s–1)
= 3.313 ×10–19 J
Energy of one mole of photons
= (3.313 ×10–19 J) × (6.022 × 1023 mol–1)=19.951 × 104 J
= 199.51 kJ mol–1
Problem 2.7
A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the number of photons emitted
per second by the bulb.
Solution
Power of the bulb = 100 watt = 100 J s-1
Energy of one photon E = hn =
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s c= 3 × 108 m s-1 =400 nm = 400 × 10-9 m

Number of photons emitted

Problem 2.8
When electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 300 nm falls on the surface of sodium, electrons are
emitted with a kinetic energy of . What is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from
sodium? What is the maximum wavelength that will cause a photoelectron to be emitted?
Solution
The energy (E) of a 300 nm photon E =
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s c= 3 × 108 m s-1 =300 nm = 300 × 10-9 m

Energy of one mole of photons

= (6.626 ×10–19 J) × (6.022 × 1023 mol–1)=39.9 × 104 J =3.99 × 105 J mol-1
 Solution of Problem 2.8 continue….

We know, mol-1

The minimum energy for one electron

This corresponds to the wavelength,
Problem 2.9
The threshold frequency n0 for a metal is . Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron emitted
when radiation of frequency n = hits the metal.
Solution
According to Einstein’s equation , =
Visible spectrum
• When a ray of white light is passed through a prism, white light is spread out into a series of coloured bands , this
band is called visible spectrum.

• The wave with shorter wavelength bends more than the one with a longer wavelength
• The light of red colour which has longest wavelength is deviated the least while the violet light, which has shortest
wavelength is deviated the most.
• The spectrum of white light, that we can see, ranges from violet at to red at .
• Such a spectrum is called continuous spectrum.
• Continuous because violet merges into indigo, indigo into blue, blue into green and so on.
• A similar spectrum is produced when a rainbow forms in the sky
 Spectrum-singular
Atomic Spectra Spectra-plural

• The range of characteristic frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that are readily absorbed and emitted
by an atom.
Emission spectrum
• The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed energy is called an emission spectrum.
• When electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter, atoms and molecules may absorb energy and reach to a higher
energy state. With higher energy, these are in an unstable state.
• For returning to their normal (more stable, lower energy states) energy state, the atoms and molecules emit radiations
in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum of these emitted radiation is called emission
spectrum
• Atoms, molecules or ions that have absorbed radiation are said to be “excited”.
• To produce an emission spectrum, energy is supplied to a sample by heating it or irradiating it and the wavelength
(or frequency) of the radiation emitted is recorded.
Absorption spectrum
• A spectrum of electromagnetic radiation transmitted through a substance, showing dark lines
or bands due to absorption at specific wavelengths is known as absorption spectrum.
• An absorption spectrum is like the photographic negative of an emission spectrum.
• Absorption spectrum is the missing wavelength which corresponds to the radiation absorbed by the
matter, leave dark spaces in the bright continuous spectrum
Spectroscopy
• The study of emission or absorption spectra is referred to as spectroscopy.

Line spectra:-
• The emission or absorption spectra of atoms in the gas phase do not show a continuous spread of wavelength
rather they emit light only at specific wavelengths with dark spaces between them.
• Such spectra are called line spectra or atomic spectra because the emitted radiation is identified by the
appearance of bright or dark lines in the spectra.
Importance of Line emission spectra
• Line emission spectra are of great interest in the study of electronic structure.
• Each element has a unique line emission spectrum.
• The characteristic lines in atomic spectra can be used in chemical analysis to identify unknown atoms
in the same way as fingerprints are used to identify people
• German chemist, Robert Bunsen (1811-1899) was one of the first investigators to use line spectra to
identify elements.
• Elements like rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs) thallium (Tl), indium (In), gallium (Ga) and scandium (Sc)
were discovered when their minerals were analysed by spectroscopic methods.
• The element helium (He) was discovered in the sun by spectroscopic method.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
• Bohr’s Model For Hydrogen Atom
By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi
Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
• When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous hydrogen, the H 2 molecules dissociate and the
energetically excited hydrogen atoms produced emit electromagnetic radiation of discrete frequencies.
• The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines named after their discoverers.
• Balmer, in 1885, observed spectral lines in visible part and expressed in terms of wavenumber ( ), which
obey the following formula:
• where n is an integer equal to or greater than 3 (i.e., n = 3,4,5,....)
• The Swedish spectroscopist, J. Rydberg, noted that all series of lines in the hydrogen spectrum could be
described by the following expression :

The value 109,677 cm–1 is called the

• where n1=1,2........ Rydberg constant for hydrogen
• n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2......
Problem:-
What is the maximum number of emission lines when the
excited electron of a H atom in n = 6 drops to the ground state?
Solution:-
Maximum number of spectral lines=
• Of all the elements, hydrogen atom has the
simplest line spectrum.
• Line spectrum becomes more and more
complex for heavier atom.
• Features which are common to all line
spectra are:
• (i) line spectrum of element is unique
and
• (ii) there is regularity in the line
spectrum of each element.
BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
• Neils Bohr (1913) was the first to explain quantitatively the general features of the structure of hydrogen
atom and its spectrum. He used Planck’s concept of quantisation of energy.
• Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom is based on the following postulates:
1) The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and
energy. These paths are called orbits, stationary states or allowed energy states or shells. These orbits
are arranged concentrically around the nucleus.
Continue………..
BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
2) The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time. The energy change
takes place when electron moves from one orbit to another. Energy is absorbed when
electron will move from a lower stationary state to a higher stationary state or energy is
emitted when electron moves from higher stationary state to lower stationary state . The
energy change does not take place in a continuous manner.
Continue………..
BOHR’S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
3) The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary states
that differ in energy by DE, is given by:
This expression is commonly
known as Bohr’s frequency rule.
Where =Energy of lower energy state and =Energy of the higher allowed energy states

4) An electron can move only in those orbits for which its angular momentum is integral multiple of
h/2p. That means angular momentum is quantised.

Where me =mass of electron, v= velocity and r = radius of the orbit in which electron is moving.
Features of Bohr’s Model of atom
1) The stationary states for electron are numbered n = 1,2,3.......... These integral numbers are known as
Principal quantum numbers.
2) The radii of the stationary states are expressed as : Thus the radius of the first
rn = n2 a0 where a0 = 52.9 pm. stationary state (n=1), called
the Bohr orbit, is 52.9 pm.
3) The energy of stationary state is given by the expression.
RH is called Rydberg constant (2.18×10–18 J) n-Principal quantum number
The energy of the lowest state(n=1), also called as the ground state, is

The energy of the stationary state for n = 2, will be :

What does the negative electronic energy (En) for hydrogen atom mean?
• This negative sign means that the energy of the electron in the atom is lower than the energy of a free
electron at rest.
• A free electron at rest is an electron that is infinitely far away from the nucleus and is assigned the
energy value of zero.
• Mathematically, this corresponds to n=¥ so that E¥=0.
• As the electron gets closer to the nucleus (as n decreases), the energy is emitted and its energy is
lowered and En becomes larger in absolute value and more and more negative. The negative sign
depicts its stability relative to the reference state of zero energy and n = ¥.
• The most negative energy value is given by n=1 which corresponds to the most stable orbit.
• We call this the ground state.
Continue….
Features of Bohr’s Model of atom
4) Bohr’s theory can also be applied to the hydrogen like species For example, He+ Li2+, Be3+ and so on.

Z= atomic number
5) It is also possible to calculate the velocities of electrons moving in these orbits.
• Qualitatively the magnitude of velocity of electron increases with increase of positive charge on
the nucleus and decreases with increase of principal quantum number.
Explanation of Line Spectrum of Hydrogen
• Energy is absorbed if the electron moves from the orbit of smaller Principal quantum number to the orbit
of higher Principal quantum number,
• whereas the energy is emitted if the electron moves from higher orbit to lower orbit.
The energy gap between the two orbits is given :-
The frequency (n ) associated with the absorption and emission of the photon

and in terms of wavenumbers ( )

• In case of absorption spectrum, and the term in the parenthesis is positive and energy is absorbed.
• On the other hand in case of emission spectrum , D E is negative and energy is released.
Problem 2.10
What are the frequency and wavelength of a photon emitted during a transition from n = 5 state
to the n = 2 state in the hydrogen atom?
Solution:-
Since this transition gives rise to a spectral line in the visible region of the Balmer series.

Negative sign indicates that light is emitted but frequency can not be negative so use only magnitude
 There is only one electron
in H atom, then why large
number of spectral lines in
H spectrum ?

• Each spectral line can be associated to the particular transition in hydrogen atom.
• In a sample of Hydrogen gas large number of hydrogen atoms are present and different
possible transitions can be observed and thus leading to large number of spectral lines.
• The brightness or intensity of spectral lines depends upon the number of photons of same
wavelength or frequency absorbed or emitted.
Problem 2.11
Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of . What is the radius of this orbit?
Solution:-
Energy

For , n=1 and Z=2

Radius
Limitations of Bohr’s Model
• It fails to account for the finer details (doublet, that is two closely spaced lines) of the
hydrogen atom spectrum observed by using sophisticated spectroscopic techniques.
• This model is also unable to explain the spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen for example,
helium atom which possesses only two electrons.
• Bohr’s theory was also unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or an electric field (Stark effect).
• It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Dual behaviour of matter,
• Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Dual Behaviour of Matter
• The French physicist, de Broglie, in 1924 proposed that matter, like radiation, should also exhibit dual
behaviour i.e., both particle and wave like properties.
• This means that just as the photon has momentum as well as wavelength, electrons should also have
momentum as well as wavelength,
• de Broglie equation for material particle
m = mass of the particle, v = velocity of particle , p = momentum , l= wavelength of a particle.
• Wave nature of electron:-electron beam undergoes diffraction, a phenomenon characteristic of waves.
Making of an electron microscope is based on the wavelike behaviour of electrons just as an ordinary
microscope utilises the wave nature of light.
• Electron microscope gives magnification of about 15 million times
 Differences Between Electromagnetic waves and Matter Waves
Electromagnetic waves Matter Waves

These waves have electric and magnetic fields Matter waves have no electric and magnetic fields
associated with them. associated with them.

These waves can easily pass through the vacuum These waves cannot pass through the vacuum.

These waves travel with the same speed of Matter waves have different speeds .
3 x 108 m/s

Wavelengths of these waves can be measured Their wavelengths cannot be measured easily.
easily.

These rays are emitted from a source in space. These waves are associated with material
particles, they do not exist without material
particles.
• According to de Broglie, every object in motion has a wave character.
• The wavelengths associated with ordinary objects (macroscopic) are so short (because of their large
masses) that their wave properties cannot be detected.
Problem 2.12
What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m s–1 ?
Solution:-
According to de Brogile equation
h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s m=0.1 kg v=10 m s –1

1J=
Problem 2.13
The mass of an electron is . If its K.E. is , calculate its wavelength.
Solution:-
Since K. E.

h = 6.626 ×10–34 J s
Problem 2.14
Calculate the mass of a photon with wavelength 3.6 Å.
Solution:-
l = 3.6 Å = 3.6 × 10–10 m Velocity of photon = velocity of light
 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
• It is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact momentum (or
velocity) of an electron.
Dx = uncertainty in position
• Mathematically
Dp = uncertainty in momentum
Dv = uncertainty in velocity
m= Mass of particle

• If the position of the electron is known with high degree of accuracy (Dx is small), then the
velocity of the electron will be uncertain [Dv is large].
• On the other hand, if the velocity of the electron is known precisely (Dv is small), then the
position of the electron will be uncertain (Dx will be large).
Example to understand The uncertainty principle
• Suppose you are asked to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper with an unmarked meter stick.
Obviously, the results obtained would be extremely inaccurate and meaningless.
• In order to obtain any accuracy, you should use an instrument graduated in units smaller than the
thickness of a sheet of the paper.
• Similarly , in order to determine the position of an electron, we must use “light” or electromagnetic
radiation.
h h
• The “light” used must have a wavelength smaller than the dimensions of an electron.
λ= =
• The smaller wavelength photon have high momentum. m𝑐 p
• The high momentum photons of such light would change the energy of electrons by collisions.
• In this way we would know very little about the velocity of the electron after the collision.
A high frequency (short
wavelength) photon gives a
more accurate
measurement of position,
but it causes a greater
uncertainty in the
momentum
Significance of Uncertainty Principle
• It rules out existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and other
similar particles. The trajectory of an object is
• The effect of Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle is significant only for motion determined by its location and
of microscopic objects and is negligible for that of macroscopic objects. velocity at various moments

If uncertainty principle is applied to an object of mass 1 milligram (10 –6 kg), then

The value of DvDx obtained is extremely small and is insignificant

If uncertainty principle is applied for an electron whose mass is 9.11×10–31 kg.,

If exact location of the electron is to an uncertainty of only 10 –8 m, then the uncertainty Dv in velocity would be

which is so large that the classical picture of electrons moving in Bohr’s orbits (fixed) cannot hold good.
Problem 2.15
A microscope using suitable photons is employed to locate an electron in an atom within a distance
of 0.1 Å. What is the uncertainty involved in the measurement of its velocity?
Solution
Problem 2.16
A golf ball has a mass of 40g, and a speed of 45 m/s. If the speed can be measured within accuracy of 2%,
calculate the uncertainty in the position.
Solution
The uncertainty in the speed is 2%, i.e.,
m = 40 g =
According to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Reasons for the Failure of the Bohr Model
• It did not considered the wave character of electron i.e. ignores dual behaviour of matter
• It contradicts Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Quantum Mechanical Model Of Atom
• Quantum Numbers
By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi
QUANTUM MECHANICS
• The branch of science that takes into account the dual behaviour of matter is called quantum mechanics.
• Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the study of the motions of the microscopic
objects that have both observable wave like and particle like properties.
• Quantum mechanics was developed independently in 1926 by Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger.
• The fundamental equation of quantum mechanics was developed by Schrödinger and it won him the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1933.
• Simplest form of Schrödinger equation :- where Ψ (psi)= wave function
E= total energy of the system, = mathematical operator called Hamiltonian
• Solution of this equation gives E and y.
Hydrogen Atom and the Schrödinger Equation
• When Schrödinger equation is solved for hydrogen atom, the solution gives the possible
energy levels the electron can occupy and the corresponding wave function(s) (y) of the
electron associated with each energy level.
• wave functions describe the orbitals which are characterized by a set of three quantum
numbers (principal quantum number n, azimuthal quantum number l and magnetic quantum
number )
Important Features of the Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
1. The energy of electrons in atoms is quantized (i.e., can only have certain specific values).
2. The existence of quantized electronic energy levels is a direct result of the wave like properties of electrons
and are allowed solutions of Schrödinger wave equation.
3. Both the exact position and exact velocity of an electron in an atom cannot be determined simultaneously.
only probability of finding the electron at different points in an atom is considered.
4. An atomic orbital is the wave function y for an electron in an atom. Whenever an electron is described by a
wave function, we say that the electron occupies that orbital.
5. The probability of finding an electron at a point within an atom is proportional to the square of the orbital
wave function i.e., |y|2 at that point. |y|2 is known as probability density and is always positive. From the
value of |y|2 at different points within an atom, it is possible to predict the region around the nucleus where
electron will most probably be found.
Orbitals and Quantum Numbers
• Orbitals are described by a set of 3 quantum numbers which are obtained from the solution of
the Schrödinger equation. These are
• Principal quantum number, n
• Azimuthal quantum number, l
• Magnetic orbital quantum number. ‘ml’
• To describe an electron one more quantum number is required which is not obtained from the
Schrödinger equation. This is
• Electron spin quantum number (ms).
The principal quantum number ‘n’
• It is a positive integer with value of n = 1,2,3.......
• The principal quantum number determines the size and to large extent the energy of the orbital.
• For hydrogen atom and hydrogen like species (, .... etc.) energy and size of the orbital depends only on ‘n’.
• The principal quantum number also identifies the shell and are represented by the following letters
n = 1 2 3 4 ............
Shell = K L M N ............
• With the increase in the value of ‘n’, the number of allowed orbital increases and are given by ‘n2’
• The energy of the orbital will increase with increase of n.
• The maximum number of electron in a shell =
Azimuthal quantum number ‘l’
• It is also known as orbital angular momentum or subsidiary quantum number.
• It defines the three-dimensional shape of the orbital.
• It identifies sub-shells or sub-levels in a given shell.
• The number of sub-shells in a principal shell is equal to the value of n.
• The possible value of l are : l = 0, 1, 2, .......... (n–1)
• Sub-shells corresponding to different values of l are represented by the following symbols.

• Maximum number of electrons in a

given sub-shell= 2(2l+1)

Shape:-
s-Spherical
p- Dumbbell
d-Double dumbbell
f-complicated
 Quantum Numbers
Principal Azimuthal quantum number (l)
Quantum No.
(n)
Value Notation No. of Value for Notation No. of No. of electrons
of Shell subshell=value subshell of sub- electrons in a in the shell 2n2
of n 0 to (n-1) shell sub-shell
2(2l+1)
n=1 K 1 0 1s 2 2
n=2 L 2 0 2s 2 8
1 2p 6
n=3 M 3 0 3s 2 18
1 3p 6
2 3d 10
n= 4 N 4 0 4s 2 32
1 4p 6
2 4d 10
3 4f 14
Magnetic orbital quantum number. ‘’
• It gives information about the spatial orientation of the orbital with respect to standard set of
co-ordinate axis.
• Number of orbitals in a given sub-shell = 2l+1
• Values of given by : = – l,... 0,….. +l
• Maximum number of electron in an orbital =2
• Number of orbitals in a given shell= n2

• Each orbital in an atom is defined by a set

of values for n, l and ml.
• An orbital described by the quantum
numbers n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0 is an orbital in
the p sub-shell of the second shell
Electron spin quantum number ()
• In 1925, George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit proposed the presence of the fourth quantum number
known as the electron spin quantum number (ms).
• An electron spins around its own axis.
• Spin angular momentum of the electron — a vector quantity, can have two orientations relative to the
chosen axis.
• These two orientations are represented by the spin quantum numbers ms which can take the values of
+½ or –½.
• These are called the two spin states of the electron and are normally represented by two arrows, ↑ (spin up)
and ¯ (spin down).
• Two electrons that have different ms values (one +½ and the other –½) are said to have opposite spins.
• An orbital cannot hold more than two electrons and these two electrons should have opposite spins.
No. of subshell in a shell= Value of n
No. of Orbitals in a shell = n2
No. of orbitals in a subshell=(2l+1)

No. of electrons in an orbital=2

No. of electrons in subshell=2(2l+1)
No. of electrons in a shell= 2n2

Values
For n=1, 2, 3, 4
For l= 0 to (n-1)
For ml= -l… 0…+l
For ms= +½ or –½
Problem 2.17
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n = 3 ?
Solution:- No. of orbitals in a shell =n2 = 32= 9
n=3, No. of subshells =3 3s, 3p and 3d
No. of orbitals in subshell (2l+1)
Subshell 3s 3p 3d
No. of orbitals 1 3 5 hence total no. of orbitals if n=3 = 1+3+5=9
Problem 2.18
Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum numbers
(a) n = 2, l = 1, Ans:- 2p
(b) n = 4, l = 0, Ans:- 4s
(c) n = 5, l = 3, Ans:- 5f
(d) n = 3, l = 2 Ans:- 3d
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• Boundary surface diagrams of s, p and d-orbitals

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• The orbital wave function or y for an electron in an atom has no physical meaning.
• It is simply a mathematical function of the coordinates of the electron.
• For different orbitals the plots of corresponding wave functions as a function of r (the distance from
the nucleus) are different.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
• According to the German physicist, Max Born, the square of the wave function (i.e.,y2) at a point gives the
probability density of the electron at that point.

• For 1s orbital the probability density is maximum at the nucleus and it decreases sharply as we move away from it.
• On the other hand, for 2s orbital the probability density first decreases sharply to zero and again starts increasing.
After reaching a small maxima it decreases again and approaches zero as the value of r increases further.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals- charge cloud diagrams
• The region where this probability density function reduces to zero is called nodal surfaces or nodes.
• In general, ns-orbital has (n – 1) nodes.
• Number of nodes increases with increase of principal quantum number n.
• In other words, number of nodes for 2s orbital is one, two for 3s and so on.
• These probability density variation can be visualised in terms of charge cloud diagrams.
• In these diagrams, the density of the dots in a region represents electron probability density in that region.
Shapes of Atomic Orbitals- Boundary surface diagrams
• These give a fairly good representation of the shapes of the orbitals.
• A boundary surface or outline surface is drawn in space for an orbital on which the value of probability
density |y|2 is constant.
• A boundary surface diagram of an orbital represents the shape of the orbital which encloses a region or
volume in which the probability of finding the electron is very high, say, 90%.
• Boundary surface diagram for a s orbital is actually a sphere centred on the nucleus. In two dimensions, this
sphere looks like a circle.
• All the s-orbitals are spherically symmetric, that is, the probability of finding the electron at a given distance
is equal in all the directions.
• It is also observed that the size of the s orbital increases with increase in n, that is, 4s > 3s > 2s > 1s
Boundary surface diagrams for s-orbitals
 Boundary surface diagrams for p orbitals
• Number of orbitals in p subshell is three. values for p orbitals are -1, 0 and +1
• These are represented as . The size, shape and energy of the three orbitals are
identical.
• Each p orbital consists of two sections called lobes that are on either side of the plane
that passes through the nucleus. Lobes are oriented along the x, y or z axis.
• The shape of p orbital is dumbbell shape

order of the energy

and size of various
p orbitals is
4p > 3p > 2p
Boundary surface diagrams for d orbitals
Number of orbitals in d subshell is five. values for d orbitals are -2, -1, 0 , +1 and +2
These five d orbitals are represented as
All five d orbitals are equivalent in energy
Four of the five d orbitals are cloverleaf shaped or double dumbbell shape
Simple way to draw shapes of five 3d orbitals
 Nodes in p and d orbitals:-
Radial nodes =(n-l-1)
Angular nodes= value of l
Angular nodes in d
orbitals
Radial nodes are • Angular nodes are at the plane (s),
In case of dxy orbital, there are
along the distance passing through the nucleus (origin).
two nodal planes passing
from the nucleus • For example, in case of pz orbital, xy-
through the origin and
plane is a nodal plane
bisecting the xy plane
containing z-axis.

Total Number of nodes=(n-l-1) +l =(n-1)

 Differences Between Orbits and Orbitals
Orbits Orbitals

Given by Bohr Obtained form the solution of Schrödinger

equation

Orbits represent the planner motion of the Orbitals represent the three dimensional
electron motion of the electron

All orbits are circular in shape They are different in shapes from each other

It is a well defined path that revolving electrons It is a region of space around a nucleus where
follow around a nucleus probability of finding a electron is maximum

The orbits concept does not satisfy the The orbitals concept completely compiles with
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle

Maximum number of electrons in an orbit is 2n2 Maximum two electrons can be present in an
orbital
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Energies of Orbitals
• Filling of Orbitals in Atom
• Aufbau Principle
• Pauli Exclusion Principle
• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
• (n + l ) rule

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Energies of Orbitals in Hydrogen Atom(Uni-electron system)
• The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom is determined only by the principal
quantum number.
• Thus the energy of the orbitals in hydrogen atom increases as follows :
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d <4s = 4p = 4d = 4f <
• The orbitals having the same energy are called degenerate.
• The 1s orbital in a hydrogen atom corresponds to the most stable condition and is
called the ground state and an electron residing in this orbital is most strongly held by
the nucleus.
• An electron in the 2s, 2p or higher orbitals in a hydrogen atom is in excited state.
Energy level diagram for hydrogen atom
The energy of an electron in a multielectron atom
• The energy of an electron in a multielectron atom depends not only on its principal quantum number
(shell), but also on its azimuthal quantum number (subshell).
• That is, for a given principal quantum number, s, p, d, f ... all have different energies.
• The main reason for having different energies of the subshells is the mutual repulsion among the
electrons in multielectron atoms.

Shielding Effect:-
• Due to the presence of electrons in the inner shells, the electron in the outer shell will not experience the
full positive charge of the nucleus (Ze).
• The effect will be lowered due to the partial screening of positive charge on the nucleus by the inner
shell electrons. This is known as the shielding effect .
• The net positive charge experienced by the outer electrons is known as effective nuclear charge (Zeff e).
 (n + l ) rule
• The lower the value of (n + l) for an orbital, the lower is its energy. If two orbitals have the same
value of (n + l), the orbital with lower value of n will have the lower energy.

Orbital 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s
Value of n 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6
Value of l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
(n+l) 1 2 3 3 4 5 4 5 6 7 5 6 7 8 6

• Increasing order of energies:- 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f
• Energies of the orbitals in the same subshell decrease with increase in the atomic number
• For example, energy of 2s orbital of hydrogen atom is greater than that of 2s orbital of lithium and
that of lithium is greater than that of sodium and so on, that is, E2s(H) > E2s(Li) > E2s(Na) > E2s(K).
Filling of Orbitals in Atom
• The filling of electrons into the orbitals of different atoms takes place according to the Aufbau principle
which is based on the
• Pauli’s exclusion principle,
• Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity and
• the relative energies of the orbitals (n+l) rule.

Aufbau Principle
• “In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies.”
• In other words, electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and enter into higher
energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
Order of increasing
energy of the orbitals
in a multielectron
atom
Pauli Exclusion Principle
• “No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.”
• Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as : “Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital
and these electrons must have opposite spin.”
• This means that the two electrons can have the same value of three quantum numbers n, l and , but
must have the opposite spin quantum number

• For example:- Hydrogen Z=1, Electronic Configuration:- 1s1 n=1, l=0, = 0, = + ½ or – ½

• Helium Z=2, Electronic configuration:- 1s2

• Set of quantum number for first electron:- n=1, l=0, = 0, = + ½

• Set of quantum number for second electron:- n=1, l=0, = 0, = – ½

• Lithium Z= 3 Third electron will go in next orbital i.e. its electronic configuration is 1s 2 2s1
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
• Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until
each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly occupied.
 CLASS XI CHEMISTRY

UNIT 2
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Topics:-
• Electronic Configuration of Atoms and Ions
• Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Electronic Configuration of Atoms
The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom is called its electronic configuration.
The electronic configuration of different atoms can be represented in two ways.
For example :
 Electronic Configuration of Atoms

• the subshell is represented by the respective letter symbol and the number of electrons present in the
subshell is depicted, as the super script, like a, b, c, ... etc.
• The similar subshell represented for different shells is differentiated by writing the principal quantum
number before the respective subshell.
• For example N Z=7 1s2 2s2 2p3

• each orbital of the subshell is represented by a box and the electron is represented by an arrow (↑­) a
positive spin or an arrow (¯) a negative spin.
• The advantage of this notation over the first one is that it represents all the four quantum numbers.
 Electronic Configurations of the some Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Electronic Configuration
Number
Hydrogen H 1 1s1
Helium He 2 1s2
Lithium Li 3 1s2 2s1
Beryllium Be 4 1s2 2s2
Boron B 5 1s2 2s2 2p1
Carbon C 6 1s2 2s2 2p2
Nitrogen N 7 1s2 2s2 2p3
Oxygen O 8 1s2 2s2 2p4
Fluorine F 9 1s2 2s2 2p5
Neon Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p6
 Continue….
Electronic Configurations of the some Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Number Electronic Configuration
Sodium Na 11 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 OR [Ne] 3s1
Magnesium Mg 12 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 OR [Ne] 3s2 The electrons in the
completely filled shells
Aluminium Al 13 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p1 are
Silicon Si 14 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 OR [Ne] 3s23p2 known as core electrons
Phosphorus P 15 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p3
Sulphur S 16 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p4 The electrons in the
Chlorine Cl 17 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p5 electronic shell with the
Argon Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 OR [Ne] 3s2 3p6 highest principal
quantum number are
Potassium K 19 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 OR [Ar] 4s1 called valence electrons.
Calcium Ca 20 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 OR [Ar] 4s2
 Continue….
Electronic Configurations of the some Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Electronic Configuration
Number

Scandium Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

Titanium Ti 22 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Vanadium V 23 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2 Exception:-Cr & Cu
Chromium Cr 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 Reason:- fully filled
Manganese Mn 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2 Subshells and half-filled
Iron Fe 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 Subshells have extra
Cobalt Co 27 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2 stability

Nickel Ni 28 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2

Copper Cu 29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Zinc Zn 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled Subshells
• The completely filled and completely half-filled subshells are stable due to the following reasons:
1) Symmetrical distribution of electrons:
• It is well known that symmetry leads to stability.
• The completely filled or half filled subshells have symmetrical distribution of electrons in them and are
therefore more stable.
2) Exchange Energy :
• The two or more electrons with the same spin are present in the degenerate orbitals of a subshell tend to
exchange their positions and the energy released due to this exchange is called exchange energy.
• The number of exchanges that can take place is maximum when the subshell is either half filled or
completely filled .As a result the exchange energy is maximum and so is the stability.
Stability of Completely Filled and Half Filled
Subshells
Electronic Configurations of the ions
1s2 H 1s1

1s2 2s2 2p6 O 1s2 2s2 2p4

1s2 2s2 2p6 Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Isoelectronic species:-
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 Species have same
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
number of electrons
Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 e.g. ,
Sc 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
2 2 6 2 6 1 2

Sc3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 (10 electrons)

Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Cr3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3
Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

Fe2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6

Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

Cu2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9

What is the utility of knowing the electron configuration?
• The modern approach to the chemistry depends almost entirely on electronic distribution to
understand and explain chemical behaviour.
• For example, questions like
• why two or more atoms combine to form molecules,
• why some elements are metals while others are nonmetals,
• why elements like helium and argon are not reactive but elements like the halogens are
reactive
• Explanations of these types of question are obtained from the electronic configuration
Q.2.18.What is the energy in joules, required to shift the electron of the hydrogen atom from the first Bohr orbit
to the fifth Bohr orbit and what is the wavelength of the light emitted when the electron returns to the ground
state? The ground state electron energy is ergs.
Solution:-
Ground state energy (E1) = – 2.18 × 10–11 ergs (given)
= –2.18 × 10–11 × 10–7 J 1 erg = 10−7 Joule
= – 2.18 × 10–18 J
Energy in fifth orbit ,

energy required to shift the electron from n = 1 to n = 5 is given as ΔE = E 5 – E1

ΔE =( c=

Alternatively
2.33 What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the same wavelength as the
Balmer transition n = 4 to n = 2 of He+ spectrum ?
Solution:-

For He+ , Z=2

Negative sign indicates

but can not be negative so
that energy is released
Now For H atom Z=1

This equation can only be true when

The transition of electron from n = 2 to n = 1 in Hydrogen would have the same wavelength as
transition of electron from n = 4 to n = 1 in He +
2.34 Calculate the energy required for the process

The ionization energy for the H atom in the ground state is

Solution:-
Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove the electron form n=1 to n=
In other words is the energy of an electron in H atom in first orbit as at infinite energy is zero
For Z= 2 and n=1
Ionisation energy =