Controls

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Process control

The scope is confined to the control of processes that utilize the fluids:
steam, water, compressed air and hot oils.
Control is generally achieved by varying fluid flow using actuated
valves.
The usual requirement is to measure and respond to changes in
temperature, pressure, level, humidity and flow rate within a given time.
The need for automatic controls
 Safety
The plant or process must be safe to operate.
 Stability
The plant or processes should work steadily, predictably and
repeatedly, without fluctuations or unplanned shutdowns.
 Accuracy
To prevent spoilage, increase quality and production rates, and
maintain comfort. These are the fundamentals of economic efficiency.
 Other desirable benefits such as economy, speed, and reliability
Manual control of a simple process
1. The operator is aiming to maintain
the water in the vessel between levels
1 and 2. The water level is called the
Controlled condition.

2. The controlled condition is achieved by controlling the flow of water


through the valve in the inlet pipe. The flow is known as the
Manipulated Variable, and the valve is referred to as the Controlled
Device.
3. The water itself is known as the Control Agent
4. By controlling the flow of water into the tank, the level of water in
the tank is altered. The change in water level is known as the
Controlled Variable.
5. Once the water is in the tank it is known as the Controlled
Medium.
6. The level of water trying to be maintained on thevisual indicator is
known as the Set Value (also known as the Set Point).
7. The water level can be maintained at any point between 1 and 2 on
the visual indicator and still meet the control parameters such that
the bottom of the tank is covered and there is no overflow. Any value
within this range is known as the Desired Value.
8. Assume the level is strictly maintained at any point between 1 and 2.
This is the water level at steady state conditions, referred to as the
Control Value or Actual Value.

Note: With reference to (7) and (8) above, the ideal level of water to be
maintained was at point 3. But if the actual level is at any point
between 1 and 2, then that is still satisfactory. The difference between
the Set Point and the Actual Value is known as Deviation
Elements of automatic control

In simple terms the operator's aim is to hold the water within the tank at
a pre-defined level. Level 3 can be considered to be his target or Set
Point
The position or level at any particular moment is termed the Control
Value or Actual Value.
The amount of error or difference between the Set Point and the Actual
Value is termed deviation. When a deviation is constant, or steady
state, it is termed Sustained Deviation or Offset.
Assessing safety, stability and accuracy

Overflow or water starvation will be safe, but not economic or


productive.
In terms of stability, the operator would be able to handle this process
providing he pays full and constant attention.

Accuracy is not a feature of this process because the operator can only
respond to a visible and recognizable error.
Elements of a temperature control system

A simple manual temperature control system


The task is to admit sufficient steam (the heating medium) to heat the
incoming water from a temperature of T1; ensuring that hot water
leaves the tank at a required temperature of T2.
Assessing safety, stability and accuracy
The manual control of temperature is inherently more difficult for
various reasons.
If the flow of water varies, conditions will tend to change rapidly due
to the large amount of heat held in the steam. The operator's response
in changing the position of the steam valve may simply not be quick
enough.
Anticipating change
In general the operator will not be able to anticipate change.
This and other factors, such as the inconvenience and cost of a
human operator permanently on duty, potential operator error,
variations in process needs, accuracy, rapid changes in conditions
and the involvement of several processes, all lead to the need for
automatic controls.
Automatic control
A controlled condition might be temperature, pressure, humidity,
level, or flow.
The measuring element could be a temperature sensor, a pressure
transducer or transmitter, a level detector, a humidity sensor or a flow
sensor.
The manipulated variable could be steam, water, air, electricity, oil or
gas, whilst the controlled device could be a valve, damper, pump or fan

For the purposes of demonstrating the basic principles, we will


concentrate on valves as the controlled device and temperature as the
controlled condition, with temperature sensors as the measuring
element.
Components of an automatic control

Sen Cont Val


actu
rolle
ser r
ator ve
The sensor signals to the controller.

Controllers are generally classified as electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic or


mechanical.
An actuator can be thought of as a motor. Actuators are also classified by
the sources of energy that power them, in the same way as controllers.

Valves are classified by the action they use to effect an opening or


closing of the flow orifice, and by their body configurations, for
example whether they consist of a sliding spindle or have a rotary
movement.
Typical mix of process control devices with system elements
Modes of control
There are two basic modes of control:
On/Off - The valve is either fully open or fully closed, with no
intermediate state.

Continuous - The valve can move between fully open or fully closed,
or be held at any intermediate position
There are three basic control actions that are often applied to
continuous control:
Proportional (P)
Integral (I)
Derivative (D)
Proportional control
This is the most basic of the continuous control modes and is usually
referred to by use of the letter 'P'. The principle aim of proportional
control is to control the process as the conditions change.
Integral control - automatic reset action
'Manual reset' is usually unsatisfactory in process plant where each load
change will require a reset action.
It is also quite common for an operator to be confused by the differences
between:
Set value - What is on the dial.
Actual value - What the process value is.
Required value - The perfect process condition
Such a controller is primarily a proportional controller. It then has a reset
function added, which is called 'integral action'. Automatic reset uses an
electronic or pneumatic integration routine to perform the reset function.
The most commonly used term for automatic reset is integral action,
which is given the letter I.
Derivative control - rate action
A Derivative action (referred to by the letter D) measures and responds
to the rate of change of process signal, and adjusts the output of the
controller to minimize overshoot.
If applied properly on systems with time lags, derivative action will
minimize the deviation from the set point when there is a change in the
process condition. It is interesting to note that derivative action will only
apply itself when there is a change in process signal. If the value is
steady, whatever the offset, then derivative action does not occur.
Summary of modes of control
 Proportional (P) action with adjustable gain to obtain stability.
 Reset (Integral) (I) action to compensate for offset due to load changes.
 Rate (Derivative) (D) action to speed up valve movement when rapid
load changes take place
Further terminology
Time constant
This is defined as: 'The time taken for a controller output to change by
63.2% of its total due to a step (or sudden) change in process load'.
Hunting
Often referred to as instability, cycling or oscillation. Hunting produces a
continuously changing deviation from the normal operating point.
Causes
 The proportional band being too narrow.
 The integral time being too short.
 The derivative time being too long.
 A combination of these.
 Long time constants or dead times in the control system or the process
itself.
Lag
Lag is a delay in response and will exist in both the control system and in
the process or system under control.
Rangeability
This relates to the control valve and is the ratio between the maximum
controllable flow and the minimum controllable flow, between which the
characteristics of the valve (linear, equal percentage, quick opening) will
be maintained.
Turndown ratio
Turndown ratio is the ratio between the maximum flow and the
minimum controllable flow. It will be substantially less than the valve's
rangeability if the valve is oversized.
Choice and Selection of Controls
Application
It is important to reflect on the three basic parameters discussed at the
beginning : Safety, Stability and Accuracy.
In order to select the correct control valve, details of the application and
the process itself are required. For example:
• Are any safety features involved? For instance, should the valve fail-open or
fail-closed in the event of power failure? Is separate control required for high
and low limit?
• What property is to be controlled? For instance, temperature, pressure, level,
flow?
• What is the medium and its physical properties. What is the flow rate?
• What is the differential pressure across a control valve across the load range?
• What are the valve materials and end connections?
• What type of process is being controlled? For instance, a heat exchanger
used for heating or process purposes?
• For temperature control, is the set point temperature fixed or variable?
• Is the load steady or variable and, if it is variable, what is the time scale for
change, fast or slow?
• How critical is the temperature to be maintained?
• Is a single loop or multi-loop control required?
• What other functions (if any) are to be carried out by the control? For
instance, normal temperature control of a heating system, but with
• added frost protection during 'off' periods?
• Is the plant or process in a hazardous area?
• Is the atmosphere or environment corrosive by nature or is the valve to be
fitted externally or in a 'dirty' area?
• What motive power is available, such as electricity or compressed air, and at
what voltage and pressure?
• Motive power
This is the power source to operate the control and drive the valve or other
controlled device. This will usually be electricity, or compressed air for a
pneumatic system, or a mixture of both for an electro-pneumatic system. Self-
acting control systems require no external form of power to operate; they
generate their own power from an enclosed hydraulic or vapour pressure
system.
To some extent, the details of the application itself may determine the choice of
control power.
Various power source options:
Self-acting controls
Advantages:
• Robust, simple, tolerant of 'unfriendly' environments.
• Easy to install and commission.
• Provide proportional control with very high rangeability.
• Controls can be obtained which fail-open or fail-closed in the event of
an unacceptable overrun in temperature.
• They are safe in hazardous areas.
• Relatively maintenance free.
Disadvantages:
• Self-acting temperature controls can be relatively slow to react, and
Integral and Derivative control functions cannot be provided.
• Data cannot be re-transmitted.
Pneumatic controls
Advantages:
• Robust.
• They operate very quickly
• The actuators can provide a high closing or opening force to operate valves
against high differential pressures.
• The use of valve positioners will ensure accurate, repeatable control.
• Pure pneumatic controls are inherently safe and actuators provide smooth
operation.
• Can be arranged to provide fail-open or fail-closed operation without
additional cost or difficulty.
Disadvantages:
• The necessary compressed air system can be expensive to install, if no
supply already exists.
• Regular maintenance of the compressed air system may be required.
• Basic control mode is on/off or proportional although combinations of P+I
and P+ I +D are available, but usually at greater cost than an equivalent
electronic control system.
• Installation and commissioning is straightforward and of a mechanical
nature.
Electric controls
Advantages:
• Highly accurate positioning.
• Controllers are available to provide high versatility with on-off or P+I+D
combinations of control mode, and multi-function outputs.
Disadvantages:
• Electric valves operate relatively slowly, meaning they are not always suitable
for rapidly changing process parameters such as pressure control on loads that
change quickly.
• Installation and commissioning involves both electrical and mechanical trades
and the cost of wiring and installation of a separate power supply must be
taken into account.
• Electric actuators tend to be less smooth than their pneumatic counterparts.
Spring return actuators are required for fail open or fail closed functions: This
can substantially reduce the closing force available and they usually cost
more.
• Intrinsically safe or explosion-proof electric controls are needed for use in
hazardous areas; they are an expensive proposition and, as such, a pneumatic
or electro-pneumatic solution may be required, as described below. Special
installation techniques are required for these types of hazardous areas.
Electropneumatic controls
Advantages:
Electro-pneumatic controls can combine the best features of electronic and
pneumatic controls. Such systems can consist of pneumatically actuated valves,
electric/electronic controllers, sensors and control systems, plus electro-
pneumatic positioners or converters.
Disadvantage:
Electrical and compressed air supplies are required
Types of valves and actuators
The actuator type is determined by the motive power: self-acting, electrical,
pneumatic or electro-pneumatic,
Valves
• Before installing a control valve ensure that the size, pressure rating,
materials and end connections are all suitable for the of expected to work.
• Keep Piping upstream and downstream of the control valve clear and
unobstructed.
• Test the Pipe-work systems to a pressure testing at a pressure above the
normal working conditions prior to use
• Prevent dirt by fitting pipeline strainers upstream of any control valve.
• Valves must also be accessible for routine maintenance, such as re-packing
of glands and the replacement of internals.
• Keep isolating valves of a full bore pattern either side of the valve to keep
plant downtime to a minimum while the work is carried out.
• Fit a valved bypass to keep a plant in operation at all times, even when a
control valve is being inspected or maintained.
• In steam lines, provide a steam separator and/or a trapping point upstream of
the valve,
A pneumatic pressure reducing station with steam conditioning
Actuators
The actuator accepts a signal from the control system and, in response,
moves the valve to a fully-open or fully-closed position, or a more open
or a more closed position (depending on whether 'on / off' or
'continuous' control action is used).
There are several ways of providing this actuation.
• Pneumatic.
• Electric.
Other significant actuators include the hydraulic and the direct acting
types.

Pneumatic actuators - operation and options


Pneumatic actuators are commonly used to actuate control valves and
are available in two main forms; piston actuators (Fig.1) and
diaphragm actuators (Fig.2).
Fig.1.Typical piston actuators Fig. 2 A pneumatic diaphragm actuator

Piston actuators
Piston actuators are generally used
where the stroke of a diaphragm
actuator would be too short or the
thrust is too small. The compressed air
is applied to a solid piston contained
within a solid cylinder.
Piston actuators can be single acting or double acting, can withstand higher
input pressures and can offer smaller cylinder volumes, which can act at high
speed
Diaphragm actuators
Diaphragm actuators have compressed air applied to a flexible membrane
called the diaphragm. Figure shows a rolling diaphragm where the effective
diaphragm area is virtually constant throughout the actuator stroke. These
types of actuators are single acting, in that air is only supplied to one side of
the diaphragm, and they can be either direct acting (spring-to-retract) or
reverse acting(spring-to-extend).

Valve and actuator configurations


Direct acting actuator and reverse acting control valve

Reverse acting actuator, air-to-open,


direct acting valve - normally closed

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