MODULE 5

MODULE 5: SOFTWARE
DEFINED RADIO

Software radio concepts, Operating frequency bands, Transmitter and

Receiver specifications of SDR, Architecture of SDR, Introduction of
cognitive radio, significance of cognitive radio and spectrum subleasing,
spectrum sharing in cognitive radio, and implementation of cognitive radio.

2
INTRODUCTION TO SDR
Software: that part of a computer system that consists of encoded
information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical
hardware from which the system is built.
Radio: technology of using radio waves to carry information.

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WHY SDR?
There are certain crucial drawbacks with pure radio systems.
Least flexibility.
Design cost is high.
The possibility of updating to new technologies is difficult.
Evolution of wireless and cellular standards: To increase the data rate,
more complex communication standards, and modulation schemes which
cannot be achieved in analog platforms due to inherent fabrication
errors. The ideal way to address this increased complexity is to
incorporate software to take control of various parameters.

4
BASICS OF SDR
Definition: Software-defined radio (SDR) is a technology wherein
software modules running on a generic hardware platform consisting of
DSPs and general-purpose microprocessors are used to implement radio
functions that would conventionally have been implemented in analog
hardware (e.g. mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators/demodulators,
detectors, etc.).
Whenever the functions of radio are defined in the digital domain, it is
called Software Defined Radio.
It provides reconfigurability by controlling the transmission
parameters ( eg: operating frequency band, modulation mode, and
protocol) dynamically using software-controlled signal processing
algorithms.

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REQUIREMENTS OF SDR
It should be able to adapt to the dynamic behavior of the system.
A conventional radio contains a particular frequency, amplitude, and a
particular format. However, an SDR should be able to switch between
these parameters.
Platforms with inbuilt DSP to support software-defined solutions.
Digital algorithms to implement the functionality of a radio.
Algorithm compatibility with available digital signal processors: The
algorithms developed for the ideal environment should be able to run on
practical DSP systems (e.g., PC, FPGA, etc.). Also, the algorithms
developed should be able to run on floating-point processors as well as
low-cost fixed-point processors.
Low digital signal processing cost
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FEATURES OF SDR
Multi-band operation: SDR will support wireless data transmissions over
different frequency spectra used by different wireless access schemes
(e.g., cellular band, ISM band, TV band).
Multi-standard support: SDR will support different standards (e.g.,
GSM, WCDMA, CDMA2000, WiMAX, WiFi, etc.), and different air
interfaces within the same standard (e.g., IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n in WiFi
standard).
Multi-service support: SDR will support multiple types of services (e.g.,
cellular telephony or broadband wireless internet access).
Multi-channel support: SDR will be able to operate (transmit and
receive) on multiple frequency bands simultaneously.

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SDR APPLICATIONS
Mobile communications: SDRs are very useful in areas such as mobile
communications where standard upgrades frequently occur.
By upgrading the software it is possible to apply changes to any
standards and even add new waveforms purely by upgrading the software
and without the need for changes to the hardware.
Any Evolution can easily be deployed just by upgrading the software.
For example, UMTS to HSPA and onto LTE could be accommodated
simply by uploading new software and reconfiguring it without hardware
changes, even though different modulation schemes and frequencies may
be used.
This can even be done remotely, thereby providing considerable savings
in cost.
8
CONTD…
Research & Development: The SDR is very useful in many research
projects. The radios can be configured to provide the exact receiver and
transmitter requirements for any application without the need for a
total hardware design from scratch.
Military: The military has made much use of SDR technology enabling
them to re-use hardware and update signal waveforms as needed.
Amateur radio: Radio hams have very successfully employed SDR
technology, using it to provide improved performance and flexibility.

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ADVANTAGES AND
LIMITATIONS OF SDR
Advantages of SDR technology
It is possible to achieve very high levels of performance.
Performance can be changed by updating the software (it will not be
possible to update hardware-dependent attributes though).
It is possible to reconfigure radios by updating software so that the
hardware does not become obsolete.
The same hardware platform can be used for several different radios.

Disadvantages of SDR technology

Analogue to digital converters limit top frequencies that can be used by
the digital section.
For very simple radios the basic platform may be too expensive.
Development of a software-defined radio requires both hardware and
software skills.
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OPERATING FREQUENCY
BANDS

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TRANSMITTER
SPECIFICATIONS OF SDR
The most important design
parameters when dealing with SDR
transmitter design are:
output power level
power control range
spurious emissions
Transmitter output power levels:
The power levels to be provided by a
mobile station depend on the
standard and its class. In all cases,
the transmitter should provide
output power control over a
significant range to comparatively
fine tolerances.
12
CONTD…
Power control specifications:

Spurious emission specifications: All air interface standards specify

spurious emission with a mask specification.
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RECEIVER SPECIFICATIONS
OF SDR
The basic receiver function is to take a real low-power RF signal and
down-convert it to a complex (in-phase and quadrature, I/Q) baseband
signal.
During this process, the signal power level is increased.
The most important design parameters when dealing with SDR receiver
design are:
input sensitivity
maximum expected input signal
blocker specifications

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SDR ARCHITECTURE

15
IDEAL SDR ARCHITECTURE
The received signal comes in from an
antenna, is converted to the digital domain
via an ADC, and the rest of the signal
processing is done in the software.
Likewise, the transmitter performs all the
signal processing in software and sends the
signal out of the antenna via the DAC.
Limitations:
The requirements of ADC/DAC (dynamic
range, bandwidth, etc.) vary according to
applications.
Depending on the application, the hardware
varies (FPGA, DSP, or GPP). This can create
compatibility issues with the software used.
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HIGH-LEVEL SDR
TRANSMITTER
ARCHITECTURE

17
CONTD…
The transmitter architecture consists of DSP, DUC (Digital Up
Conversion), D/A converter, analog RF Upconverter, and power amplifier.
The digital baseband part is coded in DSP which provides I/Q data as
per different transmitter needs.
This is digitally up converted using DUC (Digital Up Conversion) with the
use of digital LO (Local Oscillator) and digital mixer.
The digital IF samples are converted to analog IF signals.
This analog IF (Intermediate Frequency) is converted to analog RF
(Radio Frequency) using an RF up-converter.
The RF signal is amplified before being transmitted over the air using
an appropriate antenna as per desired system operating frequency.
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HIGH-LEVEL SDR RECEIVER
ARCHITECTURE

19
CONTD…
The receiver architecture consists of DSP, DDC, ADC, and RF tuner.
A/D converter: It converts analog IF into digital IF samples.
The digital samples are passed to the DDC (Digital Down Conversion)
which converts digital IF samples into digital baseband samples
(Referred to as I/Q data). DDC consists of a digital mixer, digital Local
Oscillator (LO), and low pass FIR filter.
The digital baseband samples are passed to the DSP chip where
algorithms have been ported which does the functions such as
demodulation, decoding, and any other tasks if required.
Often FPGA is also used in place of DSP in the SDR architecture for
fast signal processing algorithms.

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RECEIVER ARCHITECTURES -
HETERODYNE
1. Multiple conversion architecture
(Heterodyne architecture)
 It employs 2 or more down-conversions.
 It increases the complexity of the circuit.
 First the received signal is amplified by
the LNA and passed through an RF filter.
 Then the RF signal is converted to an
intermediate frequency (IF) signal by
using the first oscillator (First
conversion) and passed through an IF
filter and IF amplifier.
 This IF signal is digitalized by using ADC.
 Using a second oscillator, this IF signal is
converted into a baseband signal by
complex modulation
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CONTD…
Advantages
Good selectivity due to the presence of preselects and channel
filters.
Gain is distributed over several amplifiers.
Conversion from real to complex signal is done with one fixed
frequency.
Disadvantages
Complexity is high.
Several local oscillator signals may be required.
Specialized IF filters are required.

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RECEIVER ARCHITECTURES -
HOMODYNE
2. Zero IF architecture or direct conversion
receiver or homodyne receiver
 The antenna receives the signal and passes
through the RF filter.
 Then the RF signal is amplified by an RF amplifier.
 The output signal of the RF amplifier is down-
converted in a complex (I/Q) mixer. It produces
an in-phase component and a quadrature
component.
 These signals are then passed through a low pass
filter and amplified by a large gain amplifier.
 ADC is used to convert these analog signals into
digital signals and fed into the DSP.
 The digital baseband samples are passed to the
DSP chip where algorithms have been ported
which does the functions such as demodulation,
decoding, and any other tasks if required. 23
CONTD…
Advantages
Low complexity.
Suitable for integrated circuit realization.
Simple filtering requirements.
Image signal suppression is easy.

Disadvantages
 A local oscillator is required, in which the 2 output signals are accurately
in-phase and quadrature over the frequency range equal to the input
frequency range.
The mixer needs to be balanced.
Local oscillator leakage through the Mixer and RF will be radiated from the
antenna and reflected back into the receiver. This time-varying DC offset
caused by ‘self-mixing’ is a problem.
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RECEIVER ARCHITECTURES –
LOW IF
3. Low IF Architecture
 combines the advantages of a superheterodyne structure with the advantages
of direct conversion architecture

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CONTD…
Advantages
The DC Offset problems associated with direct conversion architecture
can be overcome while retaining most of the benefits of this architecture;
Lower complexity than the superheterodyne approach (but slightly greater
than the direct conversion).
Disadvantages
Better image rejection is required from a low IF receiver than that
required of the direct conversion receiver.

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INTRODUCTION TO
COGNITIVE RADIO
Radio Spectrum: the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which
consists of radio waves from 3 KHz to 3000 GHz.
The radio spectrum is divided into licensed and unlicensed spectrum.
The licensed spectrum is for the exclusive use of designated users. For
example, it includes the UHF/VHF TV frequency bands.
The unlicensed spectrum can be freely accessed by any user. It
includes, for instance, the ISM band. The ISM band is shared by
technologies such as IEEE 802.11 for wireless LANs, Bluetooth, etc.
The users of the spectrum can generally be categorized into primary
users and secondary users. Primary users are licensed users (higher
priority) and secondary users are unlicensed users.

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WHY COGNITIVE RADIO?
Traditional Radio Spectrum Allocation: Current
wireless systems are regulated by the fixed
spectrum allocation approach. In this approach,
the secondary users do not have the authority
to use the spectrum of primary users, and this
leads to underutilization of the radio spectrum.
Dynamic Spectrum Access (DSA): To reduce
the spectrum scarcity and to improve the
effective utilization of spectrum in real-time,
Dynamic Spectrum Access is used. In this
approach, the secondary users can use the
spectrum of primary users when the spectrum is
idle (referred to as spectrum hole or white
space). Cognitive Radio is the key enabling
technology for DSA. 28
COGNITIVE RADIO
A cognitive radio (CR) is an intelligent, aware, adaptive radio/system
that senses its operational environment, and dynamically adjusts its radio
operating parameters to modify the system such as maximizing
throughput, reducing interference, and facilitating interoperability.

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 HOW DOES CR WORK?
A major characteristic of CR is the
cognitive capability that enables the
cognitive radio to sense the
information from the radio
environment to find out the unused
radio spectrum at a specific time or
location.
Then the appropriate portion will
be selected for the communication
without causing interference to the
other users.
The cognitive capability is
implemented through a cognitive
cycle as shown in figure.
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 CONTD…
Spectrum Sensing: It determines the available spectrum band and detects
the primary licensed users. So spectrum sensing is significant in CRs in
avoiding collision with the primary user and improving the licensed spectrum
utilization efficiency. The CR continuously senses the spectrum, and once a
primary user is detected, it instantly withdraws to avoid interference.
Spectrum Decision: In this technique, based on the availability of the
spectrum and other policies, the CR user allocates the best available
spectrum band to achieve user communication requirements. First, each
spectrum hole is characterized by considering the time-varying radio
environment and the primary user activity (Spectrum Analysis). Then, the
data rate and the bandwidth are determined according to the user
requirement, and an appropriate spectrum band is chosen based on the
decision rule.

31
 CONTD…
Spectrum Sharing: It refers to a fair spectrum scheduling among the
users.
Spectrum Mobility: In this technique, CR changes its frequency of
operations to use the spectrum dynamically to operate in the best available
frequency band. When a primary user is detected, the CR vacates the
current channel and uses spectrum mobility to perform a transition to a
better spectrum.

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 BENEFITS OF COGNITIVE
RADIO
 Improved spectrum utilization due to dynamic spectrum access.
Interoperability.
Better usage of other resources.
Increased capacity and higher data rates.
Improved coverage.
Improved service qualities.

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 SPECTRUM LEASING
Traditionally in CR networks, the Primary Users (PU) are the licensed
users. They have exclusive rights to use their respective channels, while
Secondary Users (SU) are the unlicensed users. They opportunistically use
the underutilized channels (or white spaces) whenever PUs do not transmit
any packets. Hence, PUs are not aware of the presence of SUs.
Hence, in traditional CR networks, the acquisition of white spaces is not
guaranteed for the SUs. The SU must vacate the channel whenever a PU
reappears on it. The unpredictable PUs’ activities at any given time can
significantly degrade SUs’ network performance (e.g., throughput and end-
to-end delay).
Spectrum leasing has been proposed to mitigate this problem.
Through spectrum leasing, PUs, and SUs enhance their network
performance. 34
 CONTD…
Definition: Spectrum leasing is a dynamic spectrum access technique in which PUs
and SUs form a partnership for mutual benefits. In spectrum leasing, the SUs
negotiate with PUs and acquire their white spaces, while the PUs lease their
channels and receive rewards in the form of monetary gain or network
performance enhancement through packet forwarding by SUs. Hence, PUs are fully
aware of the presence of SUs.
Advantages: (1) Monetary Gain - PUs may lease their licensed channels during idle
periods for financial reward or revenue.
(2) Network Performance Enhancement - The PU links may deteriorate due to
shadowing and interference. Through spectrum leasing, one or more SUs form an
alternative route and relay PUs’ traffic, and this enhances the PUs’ network
performance.
(3) Dedicated Channel Access - Since spectrum leasing enhances the throughput
performance of PUs, it reduces the transmission time of PUs, therefore leaving
more white spaces and transmission opportunities to SUs for dedicated access. 35
 SPECTRUM LEASING
PROCEDURE
Consider two centralized PU and SU networks, which are collocated in the same
area. Several PU hosts (or SU hosts) are associated with a PU BS (or SU BS).
Step 1. The PU hosts send information on their
respective idle periods (or white spaces) to PU BS.
Step 2. The PU BS determines the cost and duration of
white spaces. There are 𝐽 PU hosts to be leased to SUs.
Step 3. The PU BS sends the cooperation information
(e.g., the cost and duration, as well as SNR of the white
spaces) to SU BS.
Step 4. The SU BS broadcasts the cooperation
information to its SU hosts.
Step 5. The SU hosts determine the optimum
transmission and relaying strategies and using the
cooperation information. If auction mechanism is
applied, the SU hosts may determine bid values.
36
 CONTD…
Step 6. The SU hosts send their respective
decisions to SU BS.
Step 7. The SU BS decides to accept the lease or
not and select the suitable PUs to collaborate with.
Step 8. The SU BS sends its decisions to PU BS.
Step 9. The PU BS decides to lease or not and select
the suitable SUs as relays.
Step 10. Finally, based on the lease, the PU BS
transmits its packets directly through a single hop,
or indirectly through SU relay nodes, to the PU BS’s
destination node. The SU BS may divide the white
spaces and assign the access time of each white
space to each SU hosts. The SUs transmit packets
accordingly.
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 SPECTRUM SHARING
Spectrum sharing is the simultaneous usage of a specific radio frequency band
in a specific geographical area by several independent entities, leveraged
through mechanisms other than traditional multiple- and random-access
techniques.
The spectrum-sharing process consists of five major steps:
 Spectrum sensing: detects spectrum holes and senses the presence of the LU
when the CU operates on a licensed band.
 Spectrum allocation: Allocation of a channel not only depends on spectrum
availability but also depends on internal and external policies.
 Spectrum access: Since multiple secondary users are trying to access the
spectrum, their access should be coordinated to avoid colliding in overlapping
portions of the spectrum.
 Transmitter-receiver handshake: After deciding a portion of the spectrum, the
receiver of this communication should also be indicated.
 Spectrum mobility: If the specific portion of the spectrum is needed by a
licensed user, the communication needs to be continued in another vacant portion. 38
 SPECTRUM SHARING MODELS-
EXCLUSIVE USE MODEL
In the dynamic exclusive use model, the spectrum
bands are still licensed to services for exclusive
use, as in the current spectrum regulation policy,
but flexibility is introduced to improve spectrum
efficiency.
Two approaches have been proposed under this
model: spectrum property rights and dynamic
spectrum allocation.
The first approach, the spectrum property
rights, allows licensees to sell and trade spectrum
and to freely choose technology.
In the second approach, the dynamic spectrum
allocation, the aim is to improve spectrum
efficiency through dynamic spectrum assignment
by exploiting the spatial and temporal traffic
statistics of different services.
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 OPEN SHARING MODEL
The open-sharing model, also called spectrum
commons employs open-sharing among peer
users as the basis for managing a spectral
region.
There are two approaches: centralized
spectrum sharing (top figure) and distributed
spectrum sharing (bottom figure).

40
 HIERARCHICAL ACCESS
MODEL
A hierarchical access structure with primary and
secondary users is adopted by the third model.
Here, the spectrum licensed to primary users is
open to secondary users while limiting the
interference perceived by primary users.
Two approaches to spectrum sharing between
primary and secondary users have been considered:
spectrum underlay and spectrum overlay.
In the underlay approach, secondary users should
operate below the noise floor of primary users, and
thus severe constraints are imposed on their
transmission power. One way to achieve this is to
spread the transmitted signals of secondary users
over an ultra-wide frequency band. 41
 CONTD…
The spectrum overlay (also termed opportunistic
spectrum access or OSA) approach imposes
restrictions on when and where secondary users
may transmit rather on their transmission power.
In this approach, secondary users avoid higher-
priority users through the use of spectrum
sensing and adaptive allocation.
They identify and exploit the spectrum holes
defined in space, time, and frequency.

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 COGNITIVE RADIO NETWORK
ARCHITECTURE
Components of CRN: Primary and Secondary Network
PRIMARY NETWORK
 Primary Users:
 Primary users have the license to operate in certain spectrum bands
 Primary base station:
 Controls the access of primary users to spectrum.
SECONDARY NETWORK
 Secondary Users:
 Secondary users have no licensed bands assigned to them.
 Secondary base station:
 A fixed infrastructure component with cognitive radio capabilities and provides
a single-hop connection to secondary users.
 Spectrum broker :
 The spectrum broker shares the spectrum resources between different
cognitive radio networks.
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CONTD…

44
NETWORK ACCESS TYPES
CR Network Access: CRs can access their own base station on both
licensed and unlicensed spectrum bands

CR Ad Hoc Access: CRs can communicate with other CRs through an ad
hoc connection on both licensed and unlicensed spectrum bands.

Primary Network Access: CRs can access the primary base station
through the licensed bands.

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