Module 7.

Tools
 Common Hand Tools
• Maintenance of aircraft requires the
engineer to have a reasonable degree
of skill in the use of hand tools.
• This skill can only be achieved by
practice with the correct type of tool
for the task.
• Best results are obtained when the
tool being used is at its most efficient,
such as:
• A correctly aligned hacksaw blade, at
the right frame tension used at the
optimum angle when cutting.
• Care and maintenance of hand tools is
important to ensure tools efficiency is
not impaired.
 Engineers Rule
• Made from high carbon steel.
• Graduated in Metric, Imperial or a combination.
• Classified by length and width of the graduated
portion.
• Must be kept free from rust and not mis-used to
ensure accuracy in service.
• Most common lengths in normal use are 150 mm (6”)
and 300 mm (12”).
• Some departments may require a rule of up to 1800
mm (6 ft) in length.

Continued...
 Metric Scale

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4

Imperial Scale

Edge View

Grooves

End
 Scriber
• Made from high carbon steel and classified by length.
• Used to mark lines on metal surfaces.
• One end is bent at right angles to allow scribing in
restricted areas.
• Scribe lines damage soft materials and should be
removed during finishing to avoid stress raisers.
• Point can be sharpened by stoning, but not grinding
as the high generated heat will make them soft.
• Sharp ends should kept in cork to protect them from
becoming blunt and protect us from being stabbed!
 Key Seat Rule
Graduated
Key Seat Rule
Round Bar

Scriber

• Classified by length and usually graduated.

• Also known as Box Squares.
• Used on round bars or tubes for marking off lines
parallel to the axis
 Fitters or Engineers Square
• Made from high carbon steel to very fine limits and
classified by the length of the blade.

• Blade and stock have their opposing edges ground

truly parallel with the two parts at exactly 90°.

• Used to mark lines at right angles to an edge or

surface.

• When not in use it should be kept in a protective

case to preserve its accuracy.
Continued...
 Testing a Fitters Square

• A square can be checked for ‘truth’ by using an

accurately machined right angle.

• Normal to use a Vee block or master square but if

they are not available then:

Continued...
 True Edge

Error

a. Place stock against a true edge of a flat surface

b. Scribe a line using outside edge of blade
c. Turn square over and check outside edge
against the previously scribed line.
• If the square is accurate the scribed line will be in line
with the blade.
End
 Combination Set
• Consists of four pieces:

1. Graduated steel rule.

2. Square head

3. Centre head.

4. Protractor head
Continued...
 Spirit level sometimes
The square head has a 90° located in the square
and 45° working surface head to permit accuracy
when the rule is correctly checks to be done.
secured.

Steel rule has a machined groove

along its length to allow it to be
secured in the set.
Continued...
Centre head is used
with the rule to locate
centre lines of bars or
round tubes.

Protractor head When secured to the

can be used as an rule it can be used to
inclinometer. mark out and check
work piece angles.

End
 Surface Plates and Tables
• Surface tables are free standing and surface plates
are usually positioned on a work bench.
• Made from grey cast iron with finely machined faces.
• Accuracy of a table depends on what it is used for.
• Surfaces are available in three grades, which depend
on the flatness or smoothness of the surface.

1. Grade A used in standards rooms.

2. Grade B used for inspection work.
3. Grade C used in workshops.

Continued...
• Surface plates are supported at three points, which
enables it to be correctly adjusted in all directions.

Three adjusting feet

(third foot not shown)

• Engineers blue and V blocks are used with the

surface to establish flatness and correct angles of
components.
End
 V Blocks
• Accurately machined six sided block, with a groove
along its centre, usually made from cast iron.
• The groove is set at 90° and has a square cut
clearance groove at the bottom of the V.
• All opposite sides of the blocks are parallel, and all
adjacent faces are square to each other.
• Made as an identifiable matched pair, and must
always be used together.
• V blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of
the work they can hold.
 V Block - Matched Pairs

2058
2058
Clearance All Right
Groove Matched Pair Angles are
Identification exactly 90°
Numbers
 Surface Gauge
• Surface gauge or scribing block used in conjunction
with a scriber to mark accurate lines.
• Consists of a heavy cast iron base, adjustable spindle
with arm and a securing device.
• The base is machined to be as flat as the surface
plate or table on which it moves.
• The spindle has a fine control mechanism for
accurate movement of the arm.
• The securing device is used to hold a standard
scriber.
• Can also be used with a Dial Test Indicator (DTI).
 Surface Gauge
Plate being
Support Scribed
Plate

Surface Block
Surface Gauge
 Dividers
• Used to set distances and scribe arcs or circles.

• Classified by the length of their legs.

• Legs are made from high carbon steel, spring from

spring steel and adjusting mechanism of mild steel.

• Sharpened points need protecting and can be stoned

to re-sharpen them.

• Again, should not be sharpened on a grinder as this

will draw the temper and make points soft.
 Callipers
• A type of measuring device used to measure
diameters, distances and to compare sizes.

• Three basic types are:

1. Outside Callipers

2. Inside Callipers

3. Odd-Leg Callipers (Hermaphrodite or Jenny)

 Callipers

Outside Inside Odd-Leg

Any Questions?
 Hammers
• Classified by weight and type of head.
• Steels heads are forged from high-carbon steel.
• Most handles are made from straight grained Ash or
Hickory and secured by a wedge shaped pin.
• The correct weight of hammer for each task can only
be found with experience.
• Before use the head should be checked to ensure it
is secured to the handle.
• Proper control can only be kept by gripping the
handle as far from the head as possible.
 Pein Type Hammers
The flat faces of all
three hammers can be
Ball Pein
used for general work.
Ball pein used for rivet
type work.
Straight
Pein Straight and Cross pein
used to access recessed
areas that ball pein
cannot reach.
Cross
Pein Straight and Cross pein
heads set at 90° to
each other.
 Soft Hammers
Copper and Hide faces
enable heavy blows with
little or no damage to the
work surface.
Copper and Hide Rubber and Plastic also
Hide Face Face reduce damage to surface
being struck.
Rubber and Plastic are the
more common type.
Plastic faced hammers have
replaceable striking faces
Plastic Rubber which screw into position.
Face Head
 Dead Blow Hammers
• This hammer has the head hollowed
out and half filled with steel balls.
• The inertia which allows a normal
hammer to rebound is absorbed by
the mass of these steel balls moving
forward when it strikes the object.
• The whole hammer is
usually covered in nylon
or polyurethane.
Steel Balls
in hollow
Head
Nylon
Covering
 Steel balls forced to Steel balls move to front of
rear of hollow section hollow section and absorb
when hammer swung inertia energy
 Punches
• Punches allow the force
of a hammer blow to be
concentrated into the
small area of the punch
tip.
• This increases the
pressure at the tip
compared to the
hammer blow without
the punch.
• PPE - Eye protection
and possibly gloves.
 Punch Maintenance
• In time the punch head will deform into a mushroom
shape, and chips could fly off causing injury.

Deformation
of head

• This deformation must be removed, usually by use of

a bench grinder.

Cleaned
head
 Types of Punches

• Common types of punches in general use are:

1. Centre Punches (also known as Dot Punch)

2. Pin Punches

3. Hollow Punches

4. Drifts
 Punches - General
• Centre, pin and hollow punches are usually made
from hexagonal or round rods of tempered cast steel.

• They are approximately 120mm (5”) in length with

diameter of the smaller driving end to suit the task.

• Only steel drifts should be used to drive out bearings

as chips of soft metal may break off and foul bearing.

• Drifts are made from aluminium alloy, copper or steel

and are sized to suit the task.
 Centre Punches
• Centre punches used to make indentations in metals.
• Assists in locating the centre of a hole and starting a
drill bit when drilling a hole.
• The point is ground to between 60° (Dot Punch) and
90°, depending on hardness of metal being struck.

Used on Used on
Harder Softer
Materials Materials
60° 90°
Point Point
 Punch Tip Maintenance
Care must be taken when cleaning or sharpening
the pointed end of a punch on a bench grinder.

Excessive heat can draw the temper hardening

form the metal and leave it soft.

Point should And not at

be ground in right angles
line with the as this will
shaft. make the
point weak.
 Pin Punches
• Used to remove pins, rivets and similar items such as
piano or wire hinges.

• Driving end is cut flat and is available in a variety of

diameter sizes to suit the task.

• Driving end can be parallel or tapered.

Flat End Parallel or Tapered Shank

 Hollow Punches
• Used to punch out holes in soft materials that are
difficult to drill without damaging.
• Typical materials being shim stock steel and leather.
• Material being cut should be supported by a wooden
block or similar to avoid damage to the cutting edge
of the punch.
Hollow Punch
Wood
Support Striking
Force
Metal
Cutting edge
being cut
 Cut material exits
through side

Sharp cutting
edge cuts into
material
 Cold Chisels
• Metal cutting chisels are forged from lengths of
hexagonal section high-carbon steel bar.
• Can also be made from nickel-alloy steel and
specially heat treated to produce a long-lasting
cutting edge.
• The cutting edge is hardened and tempered, but the
striking end is softer to prevent chips flying off
during use.
 Chisel Maintenance
• In time the chisel head will deform into a mushroom
shape, and chips could fly off causing injury.

Deformation
of head

• This deformation must be removed, usually by use of

a bench grinder.

Cleaned
head
 Cold Chisels
• Classified by their shape, overall length, cross section
of shank and width of cut.
• Four principle shapes in general use:

1. Flat
2. Cross-Cut
3. Diamond-Point
4. Half-Round
 Flat Chisel
• Flat chisels used for general
chipping work such as parting
metal sheets.
• The cutting edge is formed slightly
convex.

Cross-Cut Chisel
• Cross-Cut (or Cape) chisel is
narrow flat chisel.
• Used to cut narrow, flat-bottomed
grooves such as key-ways, and to
remove of heads of round headed
rivets during repair.
Diamond Chisel
• Diamond chisels used for cutting
into corners.
• Good for cutting small oil grooves
and rectifying an incorrect start
when drilling.

Half-Round Chisel
• Half-Round (or round) chisel is a
general purpose grooving chisel.
• Suitable for cutting half-round
bottomed grooves and rectifying
an incorrect start when drilling.
Chisels Cutting Angles

Rake

Cutting Angle

Inclination

Clearance
 Chisels Cutting Angles
• Chisel angles depend on material being cut.

• Suggested angles are as follows:

Material Type Point Angle Inclination Angle

Hard Steels: 70° 40°

Mild Steels: 60° 35°
Soft Metals: 40° 30°
 Bench Vice
• Bench Vice used to clamp work securely when being
worked.
• Operation of jaws via a square or buttress thread.
• The better types of bench vice have a quick release
mechanism to allow rapid opening and closing.
• Lever near the tommy bar operates this mechanism.
• Move the lever to disengage a half nut from the
threaded shaft, so it can slide past the threaded nut.
• A strong spring re-engages the nut halves when the
lever is released.

Continued...
• The ideal height of the vice for comfortable working
is level with the technician’s elbow.
• This will allow better control of the hand tools and
make the work less tiring.
• Vice must be firmly secured to a bench at all times.
• Screws should be kept clean and lubricated.
• Over tightening the jaws may distort the work being
clamped and could damage the mechanism.
• Soft materials are protected by soft jaws or clams.
• Special holding devices used to secure objects such
as round pipes or bar.

Continued...
 Work
Moving Jaw
Fixed Jaw

Square or Tightening
Buttress Thread Handle

Continued...
Soft Jaws or Clams

Detachable Steel Jaws

Screw thread
inside to open
and close jaws.

Tightening
Handle
Bench Securing Bolt

End
 Hand Vice

Clamped Work Spring

Screw Thread Wing Nut

• Used to hold small objects being worked and

classified by overall length.
• Body and screw thread made from mild steel.
• Wing nut provides the clamping force.
Any Questions?
 Hacksaws
• Consists of a mild steel frame with
suitable handle and a replaceable
serrated blade made from high-
carbon steel or alloy steel.
• The number of teeth per inch
(TPI) on the blade depends on the
thickness and type of material
being cut.
• Coarse blades have 14 or 18 TPI
and are used to cut thicker
material.
• Fine blades have 24 or 32 TPI and
are used to cut thin materials.
 Hacksaw Blades
• Blade must be fitted with the teeth
facing away from the handle to allow a
more efficient cutting action.
• Apply hand pressure on the forward
stroke only and use the full length of
the blade for each stroke, if this is
possible.
• This should prolong blade life and
reduce chances of blade jam during
use.
• Blade teeth are ‘set’ alternately left and
right during manufacture.
• This produces a slot or ‘kerf’ that is
wider than the blade width, again to
reduce jamming during use.
 Thin Section Materials

Hacksaw Blade
24 - 32 TPI

At least two teeth in

contact at all times
Thin Pipe
 Thick Section Materials

Hacksaw Blade
14 -18 TPI

Lots of teeth in
contact.
Thick Section
 Blade Set

Plan View of
Blade Set

Teeth Set
Alternates Left
Cutting Slot and Right
or Kerf
 Shears and Snips
• Tinman’s Shears or Aviation Snips are
two of the common names used.
• These are basically large scissors
capable of cutting sheet metal.
• The metal is cut to a rough size and
hand finished to the correct dimensions.
• They vary in length from 175 - 300 mm
and can cut the material in straight lines
or on a curved radius.
• Curved shears cut either left or right
radii and are colour coded on their
handles.
• Red for Left Green for Right.
 Files
• Files are cutting tools used for removing metal from
the surface.
• Made from high-carbon steel with a hardened blade
and softer but tougher tang.
• Handle can be wood or similar such as plastic.
• Classified by:
1. Length
2. Shape (Plan view of the blade)
3. Cross-Section (End view of the blade)
4. Cut (Arrangement of the cutting teeth)
5. Grade (Depth and spacing of the cutting teeth)
 File Terminology
Tip Shoulder

Length Tang
• Length measured from shoulder to tip.
• Available in various lengths.
• Most common lengths 150, 200 and 250 mm.
• Special lengths usually range 75 to 350 mm.
 File Shapes

Parallel

Tapered

Bellied
 File Cross-Sections

Hand Round Half- Square Three-

Round Square
 File Cross-Sections
• Hand section is parallel in shape, and most
commonly used for general filing.
• One edge has no teeth to allow safe work up to a
finished face, known as a ‘Hand Safe Edge’.
• Round section with a bellied, parallel or tapered
shape suitable for filing small radii.
• Half-round with bellied shape for filing large
internal radii or work of irregular shape.
• Square section, again with a bellied, parallel or
tapered shape suitable for internal work.
• Three-Square is a triangular section usually with a
bellied shape, useful for internal corners.
 Single and Double Cut
• Single Cut has teeth cut parallel
usually at 60° to the main axis of
60° the blade in a single direction.
• The open teeth pattern helps to
Single reduce clogging during use.
Cut • Round and curved files are normally
single cut.
• Double Cut is basically a single cut
75° 60° with another cut at approximately
right-angles to the first.
• Most common type for general
Double
Cut purpose filing.
 Dreadnought and Rasp

• Dreadnought used mainly for heavy

cutting on soft metals.
• Generally restricted to larger sizes of
Dreadnought flat files.

• Rasp teeth are formed by punching

a triangular shape hole in the file.
• Used for very soft materials such as
wood and leather.
Rasp
 File Grades
• The grade of a file is the depth and spacing of the
cutting teeth.
• It is a files degree of coarseness and so determines
the finish and rate of cutting.
• There are a several grades available, the most
common being Bastard, Second-Cut and Smooth.
• Bastard is a coarse grade with approximately 30 TPI
used for roughing out to approximate size.
• Second-Cut is finer with about 40 TPI, gives better
finish but is slower cutting.
• Smooth has 50 to 60 TPI to give good finish and a
very slow cutting rate.
 Filing Practice
• Proficiency comes with practice and experience.
• Secure work as both hands will be required to file.
• Never use a file without a handle - Puncture wounds!
• Files are hard and will break if dropped.
• Store in separate racks or pocket type hold-all’s.
• Regular cleaning with a scratch card will reduce
clogging and scratches to the work piece.
• Use of chalk will reduce clogging and soak up any oil
which may have contaminated the file.
• Draw-filing will allow very fine finish to be obtained,
at the expense of a very slow cutting speed.
Any Questions?
 Hand Brace
• Hand brace or hand drill used to drill holes when a
fixed drill is impractical.
• Used for drilling holes up to 6.5mm  in thin and
relatively soft materials.
• Breast Brace is larger, drill size up to 12mm , with
two running speeds.
Chuck
Handles

Mechanism Chuck
Drive Driving
Mechanism
 Twist Drill Terminology

Land
Flute
Point

Presto
1/8”
HSS

Body Shank

Shank has information Presto

such as manufacturer, 1/8”
size and material of drill. HSS
 Twist Drills
• The Morse Twist Drill is the most common used in
general engineering.
• Drills up to 12.5mm  shank is parallel.
• Above 12.5mm  shank has a 1:20 Morse Taper.
• Tapered shank has a tang to allow more positive
drive due to the greater forces felt by larger drills.
• The flute provides a rake angle for the cutting edge
of the drill.
• It also allows any lubricant used in and the cut waste
metal or swarf out.
Morse Taper Twist Drill

Access
hole for
drill
View of Tang
removal
rotated through
90º
 Drill Point Terminology
Dead Centre

Margin
Web

Body
Clearance

Flute
 Drill Point Angles
Web or Point
Angle Helix Angle
115°-135° (Rake)
Inclusive

Cutting Clearance
Angle Angle
59° 12°-15°
Cutting
Edges
 Twist Drill Maintenance
• Worn drills can be re-sharpened to prolong life.

• Drill grinding attachments are available to ensure the

correct angles are achieved when re-sharpening.

• With practice and experience, correct angles can also

be achieved by hand grinding.

• When the hole needs to be of a high standard,

discard the worn drill and replace with a new one.
 Carbon Steel Twist Drills
• Two types of carbon steel drill are Carbon Steel (CS)
and High Speed Steel (HSS).
• Carbon Steel drills alloyed with manganese, silicon,
sulphur and phosphorus with CS stamped on shank.
• High Speed Steel (HSS) drills alloyed with 8-12%
tungsten, 5% chromium and small amounts of
vanadium and molybdenum.
• HSS drills retain their hardness at the high speeds
that produce high temperatures, and are identified
by HSS stamp on the shank.
• HSS drills more expensive but will result in greater
economy over a long period.
 Cobalt Steel Twist Drills
• Cobalt Steel twist drills main alloying elements are
12% cobalt, up to 20% tungsten and 4% chromium.

• Also contains small amounts of vanadium,

molybdenum and carbon.

• These hard drills are used to cut hard materials such

as stainless steel.

• Hardness also means brittleness, so strict observance

of the recommended cutting speeds is important.
 Twist Drill Sizes
• Most common methods of drill sizing are Metric,
Fractions of an Inch and Number/Letter range.
• The sizes indicate the diameter and are usually
marked on the shank.
• The Metric range is commercially available from
0.35mm in increments of 0.05mm up to 5.0mm.
• Above this they increment in 0.1mm steps.
• The Fraction of an Inch range begins at 1/64” and
increments in 1/64” steps up to 1 5/8”.
• Above this they increment in 1/32” steps up to 3”.
 Number/Letter Range
• This method utilises numbers from 80 to 1 and
letters from A to Z.
• The No. 80 size is the smallest this corresponding to
0.35mm .
• The  increases with decreasing numbers until the
No. 1 (5.80mm) size, when the letters take over.
• The next size uses the letter A (5.85mm) and the 
continues to increase until Z (10.50mm) is reached.
• There is no direct relation between the incremental
changes in the number/letter system.
• Measuring device required to identify very small drills
whose size is unreadable to the naked eye.
 Cutting Characteristics
• Use of cutting fluids whilst drilling is very important.
• The standard of finish in the hole is improved due to
the action of the lubricant.
• The fluid also dissipates any heat, generated by the
friction action of the twist drill.
• The recommended fluid will improve the cutting
efficiency and prolong the life of the drill.
• The correct drill speed will also improve the standard
of finish of a hole.
• The required speed depends on the size and type of
material being cut.
 Recommended Cutting Fluids
• Mild Steel - Soluble Oil

• High-Carbon/Alloys Steels - Kerosene or Turpentine

• Aluminium Alloys - Kerosene

• Cast Iron and Brass - No Lubricant (normally)

• If the AMM/CMM/SRM etc. specifies a particular

cutting fluid then that must be used.
 Pilot Drilling
• For holes of < 6mm  the depth of a centre punch
mark will keep the drill aligned until it is established.

• Holes > 6mm  require a pilot hole to be cut before

the finishing  drill size is used.

• If the hole is very large a series of holes may need to

be drilled in progressively larger steps.

• Diameter of pilot drill used should be slightly larger

than the non-cutting point of the finished size drill.
 Finishing
Drill

Pilot Drill

• Cutting fluid (if required) should be used for both

pilot and finishing drills.
 Countersink and Dimple Tools
• Countersinking and Press Countersinking (Dimpling)
are methods of allowing fasteners heads to achieve a
smooth surface finish.
• The countersunk shaped fastener fits flush in the
material hole by either cutting away the material
(countersink) or deforming the material (dimple).
 Cutting or Pressing?
• If the upper surface of the
material is thick enough, then
cutting is usually done.

• If the upper surface of the

material is too thin, then
pressing is the normal
method.

• The method used also depends on the manufacturers

recommendations found in the SRM, AMM or CMM.
 Countersinking
• Countersinking can be
achieved by using a
Standard (also known as
Jobber Countersink) or
Stop Countersinking tool.
• The Standard type have a
pre-set angle to suit the
fastener being used (100°
is most common).
• The Stop countersink tool
has a replaceable cutter
and pilot to suit cutting
angle and hole size of
work.
Continued...
• Stop countersink tools should be used when a large
number of holes require countersinking and
consistent results are required.

• Standard countersinking tool is normally used when a

small number of hole require countersinking.

• The main body of the stop countersink tool may need

to be held during cutting.

• If it rotates during use it may mark the surface of the

material being cut, even though it is faced with a soft
fibre collar.

Continued...
 Standard Countersink Tool
Cutting
Angle

Interchangeable
100° or Fixed Guide
Drill Chuck (Pilot)
Fitting

Also known as a
Jobber Countersink. Cutter
Face
Continued...
 Stop Countersink Tool
Adjustable
Locknut Stop
Fibre Collar
Face

Pilot
Drill Chuck
Fitting Chip Opening

Continued...
 Exploded Stop Countersink
Cutter
Shaft
Locknut
Adjustable
Drill Chuck Stop
Fitting

Pilot Fibre Collar

Cutter Face

Main Body

Chip Opening
End
 Dimpling
• Two types of dimpling in common use are Coin and
and Radius Dimpling.
• The recess is formed by bending the metal around
the hole inwards, using a set of dimpling dies.

Male Die

Sheets to be
Female Die dimpled
Dimpling

Dimpled Skin

Dimpled skin with

rivet fitted.
 Coin and Radius Dimpling
• Coin dimpling forces the sheets into the lower die
leaving the hole sharply defined with parallel sides.
• The expensive complex die set leaves a neat hole
with smooth sides.
• Radius dimpling uses a male die to drive the sheets
into a female die.
• The sides are not as smooth as coin dimpling but the
operation is quicker and cheaper to achieve.
• Hard metals such as magnesium may need to be
heated before dimpling to reduce chances of cracks
forming, this method is known as ‘Hot Dimpling’.
Any Questions?
 Reamers

• Made from high-carbon steel or alloy steel, they are

fluted to provide a series of cutting edges.
• Reamers are used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate
dimensions.
• They achieve a smooth internal finish suitable for
precision ground bolts and special rivet types.
• They can be used by hand or on a drilling machine.
• Machine type utilise a Morse taper shank and are
normally used by machinists only.

Continued...
• Hand type are rotated by a hand wrench drive, that
locates on the square part of the shank.
• They must always be rotated in the direction of
cutting even when withdrawing from the hole.
• Cutting lubricants are the same as those used for
drilling, and will help achieve a smooth finish.
• Reamers should only remove about 0.2 to 0.3mm of
material, so the hole should be drilled accordingly.
• Supplied in protective sheaths to ensure the cutting
edges are preserved when not in use.
• Most common types are Hand Parallel, Hand
Expanding and Hand Taper Reamers.

End
 Parallel Reamers
• These are fixed size parallel bodied reamers with
either a straight or spiral flute.

• Straight fluted are the general purpose reamer.

• Spiral flute type are used when the hole has a

keyway or groove.
 Parallel Reamers

Straight Fluted Reamer

Spiral Fluted Reamer

 Expanding Reamers
• Consists of separate replaceable blades, fitted into
tapered slots and held by two adjustable nuts.

• By moving the position of the nuts the cutting blades

dimensions are changed.

• Used when a parallel reamer of the correct size is

unavailable.

• The actual size set by adjustment can be checked by

using a ring gauge, micrometer or calliper.
Expanding Reamers
The size range of
Adjusting each expanding
Nuts reamer is stamped on
its shank.

HSS
10-20mm
Presto

Square
Blades Drive
 Taper Reamers
• Used to produce tapered holes for the insertion of a
standard taper pin.
• Two types of taper are Metric and Imperial.
• Metric taper is 1:50.
• Imperial taper is 1:48.

HSS
5mm

• Metric size is etched on the shank and refers to its

smallest diameter.
 Imperial Taper Reamers

• Imperial type use either a number system (0 to 10) or

a fractional designation.

• The size is again etched on the shank but refers to its

largest diameter.

• Difference between metric and imperial taper is very

small, but they are incompatible.
 Cutting Taps
• Taps are made from hardened and tempered steel
and have fluted cutting edges.
• They are used to cut internal threads up to about
25mm (1”).
• A square drive protrudes from the shank to enable
turning via a wrench.
• Each size is normally made in sets of three, Taper
Tap, Second Tap and Plug Tap.
• The BA set consists of only two taps, and does not
have a second tap.
 Taper Tap
• Taper Tap is tapered gradually from the tip for about
two-thirds its length.
• Threads on the final third are fully formed.
• This ensures it enters the pre-drilled hole correctly
aligned before cutting commences.

Gradual Full Square

Taper Threads Drive
 Second Tap
• The Second or Intermediate Tap is used to deepen
the thread.
• Tapered for two or three threads only and is capable
of producing a fully finished thread.
• Not available in the BA sets.

2-3 Thread Full

Taper Threads
 Plug Tap
• The Plug or Bottoming Tap has no taper.
• Its purpose is to finish the threads and cut if required
threads to the bottom of a blind hole.

Full Length Threads

 Tapping Preparation
• A hole of the correct diameter must be cut in the
work first.
• This must be the same diameter as the minor
diameter of the thread needing to be cut.
• This information can be found in workshop data
books and charts.
Extract from BSF Tapping Table
Diameter Drill Size Drill Decimal
3/16 5/32 0.1562
7/32 4.65 0.1831
1/4 5.30 0.2087
5/16 6.75 0.2687
 Tapping Preparation
• Alignment of the tap in the hole is important to
achieve a straight thread.
• Taps are very hard and therefore brittle, so an
incorrect alignment may cause it to jam or break off
inside the hole during cutting.
• Removal of a broken tap is very difficult and time
consuming.
• Adequate cutting fluids or compounds should be
used to ensure a smooth thread finish.
• Arms of the tap wrench should be correct length, as
this reduces chances of excessive force being
applied.
 Tapping Tips
• Be aware that tapped thread can be left or right
handed.
• Use of an engineers square can help to establish a
well aligned tap when starting the cut.
• Once established rotate tap backwards about half a
turn for each full forward turn, as this helps to break
off cuttings.
• Use the full set of available taps, each time cleaning
old swarf out and applying fresh cutting compound.
• If the tap does break off in the hole specialist
procedures such as spark erosion may be required.
 Die Cutting
• Dies are made from hardened and tempered steel
with internal flutes to form the cutting edges.
• They can be threaded with a left or right hand.
• Used for cutting external (male) threads of relatively
small diameter.
• General use dies have a split in their design to allow
for adjustment when cutting.
• The die is secured into a ‘Stock’ which is the turning
device to allow cutting to take place.
• The stock is also the adjusting method if cutting
depth is to be varied.
 Die and Stock

Split Die
Shoulder

Stock

Outer Securing and

Adjusting Screws
Centre Adjusting
Screw
 Cutting with a Die
• The diameter of rod to be cut must equal the major
diameter of the required thread.

• If the rod is only a fraction smaller than the required

major diameter, the fit will be very loose.

• If a fraction larger the die may be damaged during

cutting. (Remember the die is hard and brittle).

Continued...
• The die is fitted into the stock with its tapered part
away from the shoulder of the stock, and the split
aligned with the centre adjusting screw.

• The centre screw is then tightened to expand the die

slightly.

• Then the two outer adjusting screws can be

tightened to ensure security of the die.

• This ensures that the first cut of the bar is a shallow

one and no excessive loads are placed on the die.

Continued...
• The rod should have a small taper or chamfer on it to
help the die align correctly.

• The same cutting compounds used for tapping

should be applied to the end of the rod.

• Ensuring that the die remains square to the rod, the

stock is rotated in small arcs, again backing off each
time, in the same manner as tapping.

• When the cutting is complete the die can be wound

off, adjusted, and a second slightly deeper cut can
be made if required.

Continued...
• Internally tapped threads are not adjustable, but
externally cut ones are.

• The external thread should always be cut last to

ensure the required degree of fit between the
respective threads is obtained.

End
Any Questions?

End