States Of Matter

States of Matter
 2 main factors determine state:
 The forces (inter/intramolecular) holding particles
together
 The kinetic energy present (the energy an object
possesses due to its motion of the particles)
 KE tends to ‘pull’ particles apart
 The Solid State
 Lattice:

Many ionic, metallic and covalent compounds are

crystalline. The regular structure of crystals is due
to the regular packing of the particles within the
crystal.
The regularly repeating arrangement of ions,
atoms or molecules a crystal is called lattice.
 GIANT IONIC CRYSTAL LATTICE
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
The arrangement of ions in a crystal lattice depends on the relative sizes of the ions

Coordination Number
The coordination number is the number of ions
that immediately surround an ion of the opposite
charge within a crystal lattice.

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl¯

(co-ordination number = 6)
and each Cl¯ is surrounded by 6 Na+
(co-ordination number = 6).
 Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Hard
 Brittle- Ionic crystals may split apart when hit in the same direction as
the layers of ions. The layers of ions may be displaced by the force of the
blow so that ions with the same charge come together. The repulsions
between thousands of ions in the layers, all with the same charge, cause
the crystal to split along these cleavage planes.
 High melting and boiling points
 Solubility
 Conduction when molten or in solution
METALLIC
BONDING
 METALLIC BONDING

Involves a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons

Metal atoms achieve stability by “off-loading” electrons to attain the

electronic structure of the nearest noble gas. These electrons join up to
form a mobile cloud which prevents the newly-formed positive ions from
flying apart due to repulsion between similar charges.

Atoms arrange in regular close The outer shell electrons of each atom
packed 3-dimensional crystal lattices. leave to join a mobile “cloud” or “sea” of
electrons which can roam throughout the
metal. The electron cloud binds the newly-
formed positive ions together.
Metallic lattice

Metals form giant metallic

lattices in which the metal ions
are surrounded by a ‘sea’
of delocalised electrons
The metal ions are often
packed in hexagonal layers or
in a cubic arrangement
 METALLIC BOND STRENGTH
Depends on the number of outer electrons donated
to the cloud and the size of the metal atom/ion.

The strength of the metallic bonding in

Na sodium is relatively weak because each
atom donates one electron to the cloud.

The metallic bonding in potassium is

weaker than in sodium because the
resulting ion is larger and the electron
K cloud has a bigger volume to cover so
is less effective at holding the ions
together.

The metallic bonding in magnesium is

stronger than in sodium because each
Mg atom has donated two electrons to the
cloud. The greater the electron density
holds the ions together more strongly.
 METALLIC PROPERTIES
Metals are excellent conductors of electricity

For a substance to conduct electricity it must have mobile ions or electrons.

Because the ELECTRON CLOUD IS MOBILE, electrons are free to move

throughout its structure. Electrons attracted to the positive end are replaced
by those entering from the negative end.

MOBILE ELECTRON CLOUD ALLOWS THE CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY

 METALLIC PROPERTIES
Metals can have their shapes changed relatively easily

MALLEABLE CAN BE HAMMERED INTO SHEETS

DUCTILE CAN BE DRAWN INTO RODS AND WIRES

As the metal is beaten into another shape the delocalised

electron cloud continues to bind the “ions” together.

Some metals, such as gold, can be hammered into sheets thin

enough to be translucent.
 METALLIC PROPERTIES
HIGH MELTING POINTS

Melting point is a measure of how easy it is to separate individual particles.

In metals it is a measure of how strong the electron cloud holds the + ions.

The ease of separation of ions depends on the...

ELECTRON DENSITY OF THE CLOUD

IONIC / ATOMIC SIZE

PERIODS Na (2,8,1) < Mg (2,8,2) < Al (2,8,3)

m.pt 98°C 650°C 659°C
b.pt 890°C 1110°C 2470°C

MELTING POINT INCREASES ACROSS THE PERIOD

THE ELECTRON CLOUD DENSITY INCREASES DUE TO THE
GREATER NUMBER OF ELECTRONS DONATED PER ATOM. AS A
RESULT THE IONS ARE HELD MORE STRONGLY.
 METALLIC PROPERTIES
HIGH MELTING POINTS

Melting point is a measure of how easy it is to separate individual particles.

In metals it is a measure of how strong the electron cloud holds the + ions.

The ease of separation of ions depends on the...

ELECTRON DENSITY OF THE CLOUD

IONIC / ATOMIC SIZE

GROUPS Li (2,1) < Na (2,8,1) < K (2,8,8,1)

m.pt 181°C 98°C 63°C
b.pt 1313°C 890°C 774°C

Li+ Na+ K+

MELTING POINT DECREASES DOWN A GROUP

IONIC RADIUS INCREASES DOWN THE GROUP. AS THE IONS GET
BIGGER THE ELECTRON CLOUD BECOMES LESS EFFECTIVE
HOLDING THEM TOGETHER SO THEY ARE EASIER TO SEPARATE.
 Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal with a non-metal.
The metal added to create the alloy becomes part of the crystal lattice of
the other metal.

Example
Brass is an alloy of copper (70%) with zinc (30%).
It is stronger than copper but still malleable.
Zinc ions are larger than copper ions. The presence of
different-sized metal ions makes the arrangement of the
lattice less regular. This stops the layers of ions from
sliding over each other so easily when a force is applied
Covalent Crystals
 Properties of Metals

 Hard
 High tensile
 High Melting and boiling point
 Malleable
 Ductile
 When a force is applied, the layers can slide over each other. But in a
metallic bond, the attractive forces between the metal ions and the
delocalised electrons act in all directions. So when the layers slide, new
metallic bonds are easily re-formed between ions in new lattice positions
and the delocalised electrons (Figure 5.8). The delocalised electrons
continue to hold the ions in the lattice together. The metal now has a
different shape.
Substances with Simple Molecular
Structures
• Consist of discrete molecules held together by
weak intermolecular forces

• Atoms in a molecule are held together by

strong covalent bonds
• Examples: I2, buckminsterfullerene C60 and ice
Substances with Giant Covalent
Structures
• Consist of millions of atoms bonded
covalently together in a structural network
• No simple molecules present
• Examples: diamond, graphite and quartz
(silicon(IV) oxide)
1. Diamond
• Each C atom is covalently bonded
to 4 other C atoms to form a three-
dimensional network (Tetrahedral
shape)
• The C – C bonding pattern
accounts for the high m.p., stability
and extreme hardness
Applications: scratch proof cookware, watch
crystals, ball bearings and razor blade

The structure of diamond A diamond crystal

Applications: scratch proof cookware, watch crystals, ball bearings and
razor blade
2. Graphite
• Each C atom is covalently bonded to 3
other C atoms in the same layer. A network
of coplanar hexagons is formed
• Weak van der Waals’ forces hold the layers
together
• Delocalized e- free to move within layers
• Properties: soft and slippery (used as pencil
‘lead’), conductor
Graphite
Properties of Graphite
Silica (Silicon(IV) oxide)
Introduction to Carbon nanomaterials
 FULLERENES

 The individual particles in fullerenes may have one

of their dimensions between 0.1 and 100
nanometers. 1 nanometer = 10 m. -9

 Particles of this size are called nanoparticles.

 They are similar to graphite with each carbon
bonded to three other carbon atoms.
Buckminsterfullerene
 Structure
 The C60 molecule has the shape of a football.
 Thecarbon atoms are arranged at the corners of
20 hexagons and 12 pentagons.
 Thebonds where two hexagons join are shorter
than the bonds between the hexagons and the
pentagons.
 General Properties:
1. It has a relatively low sublimation point at around 600 C – due to
weak intermolecular forces (VWs) as there are no continuous
layered giant structures as in graphite
2. It is relatively soft and doesn’t require much energy to overcome
the weak intermolecular forces
3. Poor conductor of electricity as compared to graphite – extent of
electron delocalisation is lower
4. Slightly soluble in solvents such as carbon disulfide unlike diamond
and graphite
5. It is more reactive as compared to graphite or diamond due to high
electron density in certain parts of the molecule
 Uses:
1. In pure form, these behave as insulators, but can be converted
to semiconductors under suitable conditions
2. Molecules made up of it can be used for health (treatment)
purposes.
3. In small amounts can be used as catalysts
 Other examples

 Other
than C60 molecule , many types of
buckminsterfullerene have been discovered
 Some are ball-shaped molecules that are
multiples of C60 e.g, C120.
 Otherfullerene molecules include C 20, C70
and C72.
Graphene
 Structure

 Graphene is a single isolated layer of graphite.

 Thehexagonally arranged sheet of carbon atoms is
not completely rigid and it can be distorted.
 General Properties:
1. Graphene is the most chemically reactive form of carbon
2. Single sheets of graphene burn at very low temperatures and are
much more reactive than graphite
3. It is extremely strong for its mass. It is one of the strongest,
thinnest material known to exist.
4. For a given amount of material, graphene conducts electricity and
heat much better than graphite
 Uses

Tiny electrical circuits

Tiny transistors
Touchscreens
Solar cells and other energy storage
devices
Nanotubes
Nanotubes
 Melting

• For ionic compounds a higher temperature is needed

because ionic bonding is very strong.
• For molecular solids, a lower temperature is needed
which is enough to over come the weak intermolecular
forces
The Liquid State
Freezing
 Boiling
 When we heat a liquid:
1. The energy transferred to the liquid makes the particles move faster
2. The forces of attraction between the particles weaken
3. The particles with most energy are the first to escape from the forces holding
them together in the liquid
4. The liquid evaporates – this happens at a lower temperature below the boiling
point
5. The forces weaken enough for all the particles to become completely free
from each other; they move fast and randomly and they spread out
6. The liquid boils; this happens at the boiling point
 Vaporization

• Vapour: It is the gas form of a liquid below its boiling point.

• The energy required to change one mole of liquid to one mole of gas is
called the enthalpy change of vaporisation.
 Condensation
When we cool a vapour, the particles:
1. Lose kinetic energy so the molecules move around less quickly
2. Experience increasing forces of attraction
3. Move more slowly and become closer together, the gas liquifies
Vapour Pressure
 At equilibrium the concentration
of water molecules in the vapour
remains constant.
 The pressure exerted by a vapour
in equilibrium with its liquid is
called its vapour pressure.
 Vapour pressure is caused by the
gas particles hitting the walls of
the container.
Heating Curve
Boiling point
 Characteristics of Gases
 Gases expand to fill any container.
 random motion, no attraction
 Gases have very low densities.
 no volume = lots of empty space
 Gases can be compressed.
 no volume = lots of empty space
 Gases undergo diffusion.
 random motion
 Properties of Gases
You can predict the behavior of gases based on the
following properties:

Pressure (P) : How often do they hit the sides?

Volume (V ): how big is the container?
Amount / moles (n): how many particles?
Temperature (T): how fast do the particles move?
 Ideal Gases: The Gas Laws

 All these variables depends on each other that is

being formulated into laws:
 Boyle’s Law
 Charles’s Law
Boyle’s Law
 Boyle’s Law
 The pressure and volume of a gas are
inversely proportional (as one increases,
the other decreases, and vice versa
 at constant mass & temp
 Boyle's Law: For a fixed amount of gas and constant temperature,
PV = constant.
 Boyle’s Law leads to the mathematical expression: Assuming temp is
constant

P1V1=P2V2

 Where P1 represents the initial pressure

 V1 represents the initial volume,

 And P2 represents the final pressure

 V2 represents the final volume

 Charles’ Law
 The volume and absolute temperature (K) of a gas are directly
proportional (an increase in temp leads to an increase in volume)

V/T = constant
 at constant mass & pressure

T
Combined Gas law
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of

gases equals the sum of the
partial pressures of the individual
gases.

Ptotal = P1 + P2 + ...
where P1 , P2 = partial pressures of gases
 General/Ideal Gas Equation
 For an ideal gas we can combine the laws, including the fact from the mole
concept that ‘ volume of a gas is proportional to the number of moles
present’.
 Putting all these together, gives us the general/ideal gas equation:
From Boyle’s law: V 1/P
From Charles’ law: V T
By combining these two we get:
V T/P
PV T
PV = constant
T
0 K = Absolute zero (lowest temp possible – complete absence of heat energy) = -273 C

K = C + 273
 General/Ideal Gas Equation
For ‘n’ moles of a gas, the Ideal gas equation becomes:

PV = nRT
Constant = R = gas constant, which has a value of 8.31J/Kmol
 Ideal Gases

 An ideal gas will have a volume that varies exactly in

proportion to its temperature and exactly in inverse
proportion to its pressure.
 Limitation of the ideal Gas laws
 Scientists have taken accurate measurements to show how
the volumes of gases change with temperature and
pressure.
 These calculations shows that gases do not always behave
exactly like an ideal gas.

 This is because real gases deviate from the Kinetic theory

in two ways:
1. There is not zero attraction between molecules
2. We cannot ignore the volume of the molecules
 Real Gases

 Particles in a REAL gas…

 have their own volume
 attract each other (intermolecular forces)
 Real Gases
 At STP, molecules of gas are moving fast and are very far apart,
making their intermolecular forces and volumes insignificant, so
assumptions of an ideal gas are valid under normal temp/pressure
conditions. BUT…

 at high pressures: gas molecules are pushed closer together,

and their interactions with each other become more
significant due to volume

 atlow temperatures: gas molecules move slower due to KE

and intermolecular forces are no longer negligible
 Ideal Gases

 The volume that a gas occupies depend on:

1. Its pressure, measured in pascals, Pa
2. Its temperature, measured in Kelvin, K
( where Kelvin temp. is equal to Celsius temp. plus 273)

 Standard conditions:
101 KPa and 273 K
Ideal Gases
Past Paper Practice
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