Topic 7

Quantum physics II

4 Line spectra
5 Explaining the origin of line spectra
6 Photon energies
7 Electron energies in solid
8 Wave particle duality

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 Light is a wave or particle ?

Can be explained in Can be explained in

Phenomenon
terms of waves. terms of particles.

Reflection

Refraction

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

Photoelectric effect

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WHAT CAUSES A LINE SPECTRA?

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4 Line spectra
Types of spectra

1. In explaining the photoelectric effect, the quantum theory use

the idea that photon has an energy E=hf.
2. Energy is connected to line spectra.
3. A spectrometer is a device that can separate the
wavelengths in a beam radiation to presents those
wavelengths.
4. For a light source from lamp contain gas, only a certain
colours are present.
5. Each colour has a unique wavelength.
6. ‘line spectrum/spectra’ indicates certain specific wavelength
are present.
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 Types of spectra

Continuous spectrum Line spectrum

Specimen of white light from a Absorption line spectra

tungsten filament lamp

Emission line spectra Sodium absorption spectrum

Sodium emission spectrum

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 Line spectra also extends beyond the visible light :
Include the infrared (wavelengths longer than visible light) and UV light
(wavelengths shorter than visible light)
~ 4 x 10-7 m
~ 7 x 10-7 m

Figure : full electromagnetic spectrum

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4 Line spectra
Types of spectra

1. Emission line spectra : show the composition of light emitted by

hot gas.
 A lamp that contains a gas such as neon or sodium, will produce
spectrum of certain colours.
 Each colour has a unique wavelength.
 If the source is narrow and it is viewed through a diffraction
grating, a line spectrum is seen.
 Emission line spectra are discontinuous coloured lines
superimposed on a dark background.

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4 Line spectra
Types of spectra

2. Absorption line spectra: : observed when white light passed

through cool gas.
 Light spectrum have black lines across it.
 Certain wavelength have been absorb by cool gas.
 Eg: spectrum of light from sun
 Shows strong absorption at wavelengths corresponding to the
lines in the emission spectra of hydrogen and helium
 Proves the presence of these elements in the mantle of hot gas
around the Sun.

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 5 Explaining the origin of line spectra

How can diff elements absorb & emit diff λ?

1. Different atom can only emit & absorb light of certain wavelength.
2. Because:
a. Light consist photons. For light of a single λ & f, carry energy
E.
b. When light interact with matter, it is the electron that absorb
the energy, de-excited & emit light in the form of photons.
3. Thus, electrons in atom can only have certain fix value of energy.

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5 Explaining the origin of line spectra
Ionisation occur
Energy levels of hydrogen atom

1. Electron in hydrogen atom can

only have one of these energy.
2. Cannot have energy in between
these energy levels.
3. Energy levels are (-): external
energy has to be supplied to
remove an electron from atom.
4. Electron with zero energy, free
from repulsive force of atom.
Permitted energy levels of
the electron (hydrogen
atom)

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5 Explaining the origin of line spectra (emission)
Energy levels of hydrogen atom

5. Example: simplest atom.

a. hydrogen atom consists of one proton
and one electron.
b. electron makes a transition to a lower
energy level.
c. the loss of energy of the electron leads
to the emission of a single photon of
light.
d. the energy of this photon is exactly
equal to the energy difference between
the two energy levels.
e. If electron moving from the highest
energy state to the lowest energy state-
emission of a more energetic photon
with highest frequency and shortest
wavelengths.
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 5 Explaining the origin of line spectra (emission)
Energy levels of hydrogen atom
Example: hydrogen atom
a. Assume highest energy state, n=∞ and
lowest energy state n = 1 (ground
state)
b. the shortest λ in the hydrogen
spectrum is 9.17x10-8 m.
c. Therefore, largest energy change in the
spectrum of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV

E = hf = hc/λ
= (6.63x10-34) (3x108)
9.17x10-8
= 2.17x10-18 J
= 13.6 eV

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5 Explaining the origin of line spectra (absorption)
Energy levels of hydrogen atom

5. Example: explain the origin of absorption

line spectra.
a. White light consists of photons of
many different energies.
b. For a photon to be absorbed, it must
have exactly the right energy to lift an
electron from one energy level to
another.
c. If its energy is too little or too great, it
will not be absorbed.
d. the frequency of the photon must be
such that its energy matches the gap
between the two energy levels.

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 5 Explaining the origin of line spectra (absorption)
Energy levels of hydrogen atom

5. Example: explain the origin of absorption line

spectra.
e. E = 13.6 eV is absorbed by hydrogen atom Energy Energy
when it is ionised from its ground state level
f. Electron gain enough energy to escape from 1 -13.6 eV
the attraction of the nucleus.
g. Thus ionisation of a hydrogen atom in its 2 -3.4 eV
ground state is a transition from the n = 1 3 -1.51 eV
energy level to the n = ∞ energy level.
h. the lowest energy state or non-radiating state 4 -0.85 eV
(ground state) n=1 has an energy -13.6 eV.
i. The next state n=2, has energy E2 = E1/n2 = - 5 -0.54 eV
3.4 eV
j. E=0 for n= ∞, represents the state for which
the electron is removed form the atom.

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5 Explaining the origin of line spectra

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5 Explaining the origin of line spectra

What happen when atom emit/absorb light?

1. Atoms emit light when:
a. Electrons fall from high to a lower energy levels (transition).
b. Loss energy = emission of a single photon of light.
c. Energy of the photon equal to energy difference between two
energy levels.
d. The energy of the emitted photons shows its wavelength.
e. This explains why only certain wavelengths are present in the
emission line spectrum of a hot gas.
f. Atoms of different element have different line spectra because
different spacing between energy levels.

2. Absorption:
a. For a photon to be absorb, it must have exactly the right energy to lift
an electron from one energy level to another.
b. If energy is too smaller/bigger, no absorption.

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End of Lecture

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6 Photon energies

• When an electron changes its energy from one level E1 to

another E2, it either emits or absorbs a single photon.
• The energy of the photon hf is simply equal to the difference
in energies between the two levels:

• ∆E = Efinal – Einitial

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7 Electron energies in solids

Band theory

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7 Electron energies in solids

Energy levels
1. In solid/liquid, atoms are close together.
2. Electrons from one atom interact with neighboring atoms.
3. Instead of individual, their energy level are closely distributed
as energy bands.
4. In between the bands are gaps/forbidden gaps with no
allowed energy levels.

Energy bands

Gas atom

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 Energy band
 The collection of individual energy levels of electrons
surrounding each atom
 Available energy layer for electrons in each atom

Valence band Forbidden gap

Conduction band

Fig: How the energy bands are filled in metal, semiconductor & insulator

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 Conduction band
 Upper conduction band may empty energy band or partially
occupied by conduction electrons. (depends on material of
the solid)
 Electrons in this band are free to move between atoms as
electric current.

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 Valence band
 Lower valence band is occupied by valence electrons.
 Valence electrons are tightly bound to their atoms and are not
free to move about.

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 Energy band of CONDUCTOR

 Conduction band is partially filled with conduction electrons.

 Conduction band and valence band may overlap, thus the
conduction band may occupied by many conduction electron.
 When electrons gain energy from cell, they are free to move to
higher energy level
 The movement of electrons produce electric current.
 Cause metal to become good conductors of electricity.
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 Energy band of INSULATOR

 Conduction band is empty, valence band is fully occupied with

electrons which tightly bound to individual atom.
 Conduction band and valence band- separated by very wide band
gap (forbidden gap).
 Therefore, electrons unable to gain enough energy to jump from
valence to conduction band.
 Voltage of cell insufficient to lift electrons across the gap- electrons
are not free to move through material- it is an insulator.
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 Energy band of SEMICONDUCTOR

 Similar to insulator, conduction band is empty, valence band

is fully occupied with electrons which tightly bound to
individual atom.
 However, the forbidden gap is narrower- enable some
electrons with enough energy to jump from valence band to
conduction band easily, even with room temperature.
 These free electrons can form a current (semiconductor can
conduct electricity, very slightly.
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 Energy band of SEMICONDUCTOR

 At high temperature, electrons excited by heat energy can

gain enough energy to jump from valence band to conduction
band.
 When this happen, large number of electrons being excited
into conduction band- leave large number of holes in valence
band.
 The hole behaves as positive charge carrier and also move
freely.

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 Energy band of SEMICONDUCTOR

 Resistance of semiconductor decrease because increased

number density of electrons in conduction band
 When p.d connected across semiconductor, the holes and
electrons moves in opposite direction, thus both charge
carrier contribute to the current flow.

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 7 Electron energies in solids
Electrical conduction
Difference between metal, semiconductor & insulator
Metal Semiconductor Insulator
Some metal, top valence band Smaller gap btwn bands. Large gap btwn
overlaps with bottom bands.
conduction band (more free e’s).
In metal, electron gain energy & Conduct very slightly at room Insufficient energy
move to empty energy levels in T. e’s have enough energy to to lift even the most
higher band. Then free to move jump into conduction band. energetic electrons
in metal & produce current. across the gap.
Typically has one free electron Less free electron. Almost no free
per atom. electron.
Heated, R increase: e’s collide Heated, R decreas: more e’s
frequently. in conduction band.
Silicon, germanium is type
of intrinsic semiconductors
(their conductivity is a
property of the pure
material). DIODE, LDR,
TRANSISTOR
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 8 Wave particle duality

1. So light - which we thought was a wave - has got the properties of

particles in certain situations.
2. Particles like photon and electron have properties of wave too.
3. To explain the wave like behaviour of particles, de Broglie
developed an equation.
4. He postulated that, because photons have wave & particle
characteristics, perhaps all form of matter have wave properties.
5. According to Broglie, electrons have dual particle-wave nature
6. If electrons are behaving like wave, what is their wavelength????

Momentum of a photon
E h E
p 
c  c
de Broglie’s h h
hypothesis   Wave nature of Electron (matter
p mv waves)
de Broglie wavelength
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8 Wave particle duality

Evidence of particle behave as a wave

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 Phosphor screen

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INVESTIGATING ELECTRON DIFFRACTING

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8 Wave particle duality

Anything that has mass, has wavelength

People waves
1. de Broglie equation apply to all matter.
2. But λ for running person is very small compared to gap the person is
likely try to squeeze through (imagine people plays the role of
electron).
3. Big mass cannot be diffracted.

Probing matter
1. Slow-moving electrons is used to explore arrangements of atoms in
metal, structure of complex molecules (DNA).
2. Need to accelerate electrons to the right speed so that wavelength
similar to spacing between atoms.
3. Separation between atom ~ 10-10 m.

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8 Wave particle duality

This duality is referred to as the wave–particle

duality of the electron. In simple terms:

• Electron interact with matter as a particle.

(Newtonian mechanics)

• Electron travels through space as a wave.

(diffraction of electrons)

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Summary

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END OF TOPIC 7

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