CHAPTER-2 CLASS 9TH

PEOPLE AS RESOURCE
Human Capital is a collection of expertise, behaviors, social and personality characteristics, including
imagination, reflected in the capacity to conduct work in order to produce economic benefit.

CONTENTS
1 HUMAN RESOURCE
2 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES BY MEN AND WOMEN
3 DIVISION OF LABOUR BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN
4 QUALITY OF POPULATION
5 EDUCATION
5.1 (I) ADVANTAGES
6 NEGATIVE EFFECTS/IMPACT OF UNEMPLOYMENT
7 SECTORS AND UNEMPLOYMENT
Human Resource
(i) People as resource is a way of referring to a country’s working people, in terms of their existing productive skills and
abilities.

(ii) When the existing ‘human resource’ is further developed by becoming more educated and healthy, we call it human
capital formation. It adds to the productive power of the country.

(iii) Investment in human capital (through education, training, medical care) yields a investment in physical capital

(iv) Human capital is in one way superior to other resources like land and physical capital because human resource can make
use of land and capital.
(v) Land and capital cannot become useful on their own.

(vi) For many decades in India, a large population has been considered a liability rather than an asset.

(vii) A large population can be turned into a productive asset by investment in human capital i.e., by spending resources on
education and health for all.

(viii) Educated parents invest in the education of their children.

(ix) They are also conscious of proper nutrition and hygiene.

(x) As a result of the investment in children, a virtuous cycle is created.

(xi) A vicious cycle may be created by disadvantaged parents who, themselves being uneducated keep their children in
similarly disadvantaged state.
Economic Activities by Men and Women
Various economic activities have been classified into 3 sectors i.e., primary, secondary and tertiary.

(i) Primary Sector Primary sector includes agriculture forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming and mining.

(ii) Secondary Sector Manufacturing and construction are included in the secondary sector.

(iii) Tertiary Sector Trade, transport, communication, banking, education health, tourism services, insurance etc are included
in the tertiary sector.

Defining Economic Activities Economic activities also called market activities are those activities in which income is got in
return for the work done.

(i) Market Activities These involve remuneration to anyone who performs the activity, i.e., activity performed for pay or
profit.

These include production of goods and services and also includes government service.

(ii) Non Market Activities Non market activities production for self consumption. These can be consumption and processing
of primary products and own account production of fixed assets.

.
Division of Labour Between Men and Women
(i) Due to historical and cultural reasons, there is a division of labour between men and women in the family.

(ii) Women generally look after domestic work and men work in the fields. The women who work in the homes are not paid
anything, while the men who work outside the homes earn wages

(iii) Women get paid for their work only when they enter the labour market.

(iv) The earnings of women are determined on the basis of skill and education.

(v) Education and skill are the major determinants of the earning of any individual in the market.

(vi) Women have very less education and low skill formation and are paid lower compared to men.

Quality of Population
(i) The quality of population depends upon the literacy rate ,health and skill formation.
(ii) Health of a person is indicated by life expectancy.
(iii) The quality of the population decides the growth rate of the country.
(iv) Illiterate and unhealthy population are a liability for the country.
.
Education

(i) Advantages

(a) Education contributes towards the growth of society. It enhances the national income, cultural richness and the efficiency
of governance; it helps to get jobs and increase income.

(b) Literacy rates have increased from 18% in 1951 to 65% in 2001.

(c) Literacy among males is nearly 50% higher than females and is about 50% higher in urban areas compared to rural areas.

(ii) Steps to Spread Education

(a) Sarva Siksha Abhiyan is a significant step towards providing elementary education to all children in the age group of 6 to 14
years by 2010.

(b) Midday Meal scheme has been implemented in schools to encourage attendance and retention of children and improve
their nutritional status.

(c) The 10th Plan aimed to increase the enrollment in higher education of the 18 to 23 years age group.

(d) The 10th plan also focuses on distance education and convergence of formal, non-formal distance and IT education
institutions.
Health
(i) The health of a person helps him to realise his potential and the ability to fight illness.

(ii) An unhealthy person becomes a liability for an organisation. Health is an indispensable basis for realising one’s well being.

(iii) The National Health Policy too, aims at improving the accessibility of health care, family welfare and nutritional services
especially for the weaker and the underprivileged sections of society.

Unemployment
It s said to exist when people who are willing to work at the going wages cannot find jobs.

(a) Seasonal unemployment

Seasonal unemployment happens when people are not able to find jobs during some months of the year due to seasonal nature
of the work.

(b) Disguised Unemployment :

• In the case of disguised unemployment, people appear to be employed but they are not working to their full potential.

• A family of 8 persons are working on a farm whereas the work requires the service of 5 people only. The remaining 3 persons
are extra though they are working on the farm .They are said to be disguisedly unemployed.

(c) Educated Unemployment In case of urban areas educated unemployment has become a common feature.

The unemployment of graduates and post-graduates has increased faster than among matriculates.
 Trends in literacy rates in post independent india 2021

Number of institution of high education ,enrolment and faculty

2019 -20
Negative Effects/Impact of Unemployment
(i) Unemployment leads to wastage of manpower resource.

(ii) People who are an asset for the country turn into a liability.

(iii) There is a feeling of helplessness and despair among the youth.

(iv) People do not have enough money to support their family.

(v) The dependence of the unemployed on the working population increases.

(vi) The quality of life of an individual as well as the society is negatively affected.

(vii) In conditions of bare subsistence there is a general decline in health status and increased dropouts from school.

(viii) Unemployment has detrimental impact on the overall growth of an economy.

Sectors and Unemployment

(i) Agriculture is the most labour absorbing sector of the economy.

(ii) In the secondary sector small scale manufacturing is the most labour absorbing.

(iii) In the tertiary sector various new services are now appearing like biotechnology and IT services (call centres).
(iv) Some of the surplus labour in agriculture has moved to either the secondary or the tertiary sector.
**Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA):**

**Introduction:**
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) was a significant government initiative launched in 2001 in India. It aimed to ensure that all
children between the ages of 6 and 14 have access to free and mandatory education.

**Type of Education:**
SSA primarily focused on elementary education, with the primary goal of making sure every child could access and complete
their primary education.
**Aim:**
- Ensuring every child has access to good-quality education.
- Reducing differences based on gender and social background.
- Keeping children in school and maintaining education quality.
- Involving local communities in the education process.

**Results:**
- More children, SC/ST ‘s particularly girls and those from disadvantaged groups, enrolled in schools.
- Fewer students dropped out of school.
- School infrastructure improved.
- Teachers received better training.
- Special attention given to children with disabilities.
- Communities became more involved in school management.
- In some states, the Mid-Day Meal Scheme was integrated.
- In 2018, it was combined with the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan for a more comprehensive education approach.
**Navodaya Vidyalaya Scheme:**

**Introduction:**
The Navodaya Vidyalaya Scheme is a plan by the government to create schools, called Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas (JNVs), in
rural areas to give good education.

**Type of Education:**
JNVs teach kids from Class VI to Class XII and focus on finding talent and making kids better, especially those from villages.

**Aim:**
- Find and help talented kids from rural areas.
- Make education in villages as good as in cities.
- Support children from poorer families.
- Bring kids from different backgrounds together.

**Results:**
- JNVs find and help talented rural kids.
- Give a good education and make villages better.
- Help kids do well in different things.
- Bring kids from different backgrounds together.
**Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):**

**Introduction:**
MGNREGA, a significant Indian government initiative enacted in 2005, is a groundbreaking program designed to enhance rural
employment and economic development in India.

**Aim:**
- To guarantee 100 days of wage employment to rural households during a financial year.
- Alleviate poverty, promote rural development, and provide a safety net during economic distress.

**Results:**
- Covers all 718 rural districts in India.
- Provides employment to over 68 million households, generating 270+ crore person-days of work in FY 2020-2021.
- Significant impact on reducing poverty and empowering marginalized communities.
- Ongoing improvements to address challenges such as delayed payments and corruption, with an emphasis on technology and
better monitoring.
**National Food for Work Programme (NFWP) 2004:**

**Introduction:**
The NFWP was a significant government effort in 2004 to create jobs and provide food to people in rural areas in 159
backword district . They earned food by working on public projects.

**Aim:**
- Give jobs to rural folks.
- Make sure they have enough food.
- Build things like roads in rural areas.

**Implementation:**
- Happened in different rural districts across India.
- Especially helped when there wasn't much farm work.

**Role of National Government:**

- The national government planned it and gave money.
- Made sure the money got to the districts.
- Watched over it to keep things honest.

**Results:**
- Gave jobs to people in rural areas.
- Built things like roads in those places.
- Made sure people had enough to eat.
**Prime Minister's Rozgar Yojana (PMRY):**

**Introduction:**
The Prime Minister's Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) is a government program in India that was launched in the year 1993. It encourages
self-employment and entrepreneurship among young individuals.

**Aim:**
- Help young people start small businesses.
- Promote self-employment.
- Provide financial support and training for business projects.

**Implementation:**
- PMRY operates in various states and Union Territories in India.
- It provides financial assistance for small business ventures.

**Results:**
- PMRY has helped establish many small businesses.
- It has created job opportunities and supported economic growth.
- Empowered individuals to start and run their own businesses.
**Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP):**

**Introduction:**
The Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP) is an Indian government initiative launched in 1995 to promote the
establishment of rural industries and create employment opportunities in rural areas.

**Aim and Targets:**

- To encourage the development of small-scale rural industries.
- Generate sustainable employment opportunities in rural regions.
- Set initial targets, such as establishing 25,000 rural industries, with a focus on increasing job opportunities and industrial
growth in rural areas inTenth five years.

**Implementation:**
- REGP has been implemented across various states and Union Territories in India.
- It provides financial assistance and support to individuals and groups to establish small businesses and rural industries.

**Results:**
- REGP has led to the establishment of numerous small-scale rural industries.
- It has played a vital role in creating sustainable employment opportunities in rural India.
- The program has contributed to economic development, reduced unemployment, and curbed rural-to-urban migration.
**Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY):**

**Introduction:**
The Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) was a government program launched in April 1999 in India, which aimed to
alleviate poverty by promoting self-employment in rural areas.

**Aim:**
- To reduce poverty by facilitating sustainable self-employment opportunities.
- Empower rural families by providing financial assistance and training.
- Foster the growth of small businesses and income generation in villages.

**Implementation:**
- SGSY was implemented across various states and Union Territories in India.
- It focused on supporting individual and group-based economic activities, especially in rural and tribal areas.

**Results:**
- The SGSY program contributed to the creation of numerous self-employment opportunities in rural regions.
- It empowered individuals and groups to start and run their own businesses.
- SGSY aimed to reduce poverty and enhance the economic well-being of rural communities through self-employment.
**Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY):**

**Introduction:**
The Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) was a government scheme in India, primarily launched in the early 2000s,
with the aim of promoting the development of rural areas and improving the overall quality of life in villages.

**Aim:**
- To boost rural development by addressing various essential areas such as primary education, health, rural shelter, and rural
drinking water.
- To reduce poverty and enhance the quality of life in rural communities.
- Encourage a holistic approach to rural development.

**Implementation:**
- PMGY encompassed various states and union territories in India.
- It targeted the improvement of infrastructure, healthcare, education, and drinking water facilities in rural areas.

**Results:**
- PMGY aimed to bring about positive changes in rural India through the betterment of various essential sectors.
- It contributed to improving the overall living conditions in rural communities.
- The scheme's success relied on promoting a comprehensive approach to rural development and enhancing the well-being of
rural residents.
 POVERTY AS A CHALLENGE

CONTENTS
1 POVERTY
2 POVERTY SEEN BY SOCIAL SCIENTIST
3 POVERTY LINE
4 SOCIAL EXCLUSION
5 VULNERABILITY
6 POVERTY LINE
7 POVERTY ESTIMATES
8 GOVERNMENT MEASURES
9 VULNERABLE GROUPS
10 INTER-STATE DISPARITIES
11 GLOBAL POVERTY SCENARIO
**Poverty**

- Poverty is a pressing issue where individuals are unable to meet their basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter.

- Independent India has faced the formidable challenge of alleviating poverty for millions of its citizens.

- In our daily lives, we witness poverty all around us. This includes landless laborers in rural areas, people living in overcrowded
shanties in cities, daily wage laborers, and child laborers at roadside eateries.

- According to statistics, approximately one in every four individuals in India lives in poverty, with around 270 million (27 crore)
people being affected by poverty as of 2011-12.

**Two Typical Cases of Poverty (Urban and Rural):**

- Poverty entails hunger, lack of shelter, inadequate access to clean water and sanitation facilities, and the absence of a regular
job that provides a minimum decent income.

- It is also a situation where parents are unable to send their children to school or where individuals cannot afford essential
medical treatment.

- Poverty is indeed one of the most formidable challenges facing independent India. True independence will only be realized
when the most disadvantaged individuals are freed from human suffering.
and Tamil Nadu have benefited from public distribution of food grains.
**Poverty as Seen by Social Scientists:**

- Social scientists analyze poverty using a range of indicators. Traditionally, these indicators relate to income and consumption
levels.

- However, contemporary approaches consider other social factors like illiteracy, malnutrition, limited access to healthcare,
employment opportunities, safe drinking water, sanitation, etc.

- Analysis of poverty based on social exclusion and vulnerability is now increasingly common.

**Social Exclusion:**
- Social exclusion is a valuable concept for understanding poverty. It highlights the experience of the poor living in
impoverished surroundings, surrounded by other impoverished individuals.

- Social exclusion is the process through which certain individuals or groups are denied access to benefits, facilities, and
opportunities that others enjoy. For example, the caste system in India can result in social exclusion.

**Vulnerability:**
- Vulnerability refers to the increased likelihood of being disproportionately affected by external factors, such as earthquakes
or economic downturns.

- Vulnerability can manifest in certain communities, like members of backward castes, or in individuals, such as widows or
people with physical disabilities.
**Poverty Line:**

- The poverty line is a method for measuring poverty based on income or consumption levels.

- If an individual's income or consumption falls below this predefined minimum level, they are considered poor.

- The poverty line is variable and is determined based on factors like food, clothing, footwear, fuel, education, and medical
requirements.

- In India, it is calculated using a calorie requirement, with rural areas requiring more calories due to physical work.

- As of 2011-12, the poverty line was set at Rs 816 per month for rural areas and Rs 1000 for urban areas.

- These figures are updated periodically through surveys conducted by the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO).

**Poverty Estimates:**

- India has seen a significant reduction in poverty rates, decreasing from around 45 percent in 1993-94 to 37.2 percent in
2004-05, and further to about 22 percent in 2011-12.
**Government Measures to Address Poverty:**

The government of India has implemented several measures and programs to address and alleviate poverty:

1. **Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):**

- MGNREGA guarantees 100 days of wage employment to every rural household.
- This program aims to provide income security to rural households and reduce rural poverty.

2. **Public Distribution System (PDS):**

- The PDS provides subsidized food grains to low-income individuals and families.
- This system helps ensure food security and reduce hunger among the impoverished population.

3. **National Food Security Act (NFSA):**

- The NFSA aims to provide highly subsidized food grains to two-thirds of the Indian population.
- It seeks to ensure that the most vulnerable sections of society have access to affordable food.

4. **Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY):**

- PMAY is a housing scheme that aims to provide affordable housing to urban and rural poor.
- It targets the construction of affordable homes for those who lack adequate housing.

5. **National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM):**

- NRLM aims to reduce rural poverty by promoting self-employment and skill development among rural youth.
- It provides support for livelihood activities and financial inclusion.
6. **Swachh Bharat Abhiyan:**
- The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Campaign) focuses on sanitation and cleanliness.
- Improving sanitation facilities helps reduce health-related expenses among the poor.

7. **Jan Dhan Yojana:**

- The Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana aims to provide financial inclusion to the unbanked and underprivileged population.
- It enables them to open bank accounts and access various financial services.

8. **Mid-Day Meal Scheme:**

- The Mid-Day Meal Scheme provides free meals to school children.
- This program not only encourages school attendance but also addresses malnutrition among the economically disadvantage.

9. **Skill India Mission:**

- Skill India aims to train and skill the youth for better employment opportunities.
- This initiative equips them with the skills necessary for more gainful employment.

10. **Aadhaar and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT):**

- The Aadhaar program is linked to various welfare schemes.
- DBT ensures that government benefits and subsidies reach the intended beneficiaries directly, reducing leakages and
corruption.

11. **Rural and Urban Housing Schemes:**

- Various state and central government schemes focus on providing housing to the poor in both rural and urban areas.
- These initiatives aim to improve living conditions and reduce homelessness.
12. **Social Security Schemes:**
- The government offers social security schemes such as the National Social Assistance Program (NSAP) to support elderly,
widows, and people with disabilities.
- These schemes provide financial assistance to the most vulnerable groups.

13. **Special Initiatives for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes:**

- Several programs and initiatives specifically target the upliftment and empowerment of these marginalized communities.
- These initiatives include scholarships, skill development, and land redistribution programs.

These government measures collectively aim to reduce poverty, improve living conditions, provide livelihood opportunities,
and enhance the overall well-being of India's impoverished population.
**Vulnerable Groups:**
- Socially, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are the most vulnerable to poverty.

- Economically, rural agricultural labor households and urban casual labor households face significant poverty rates.

- For instance, 51 out of 100 people from Scheduled Tribes live in poverty, as do 50% of urban casual workers and 50% of
landless agricultural laborers.

- All these groups, except Scheduled Tribes, have seen a reduction in poverty during the 1990s.

- Additionally, women, the elderly, and female infants are systematically denied equal access to resources, making them the
poorest among the poor.

**Inter-State Disparities:**
- Poverty rates vary between states in India.
- Bihar and Odisha have consistently been the two poorest states, with poverty ratios of 33.7 and 32.6 percent, respectively.

- Urban poverty is notably high in states like Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.

- States like Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and West Bengal have witnessed a reduction in
poverty.
- Punjab and Haryana have managed to reduce poverty through high agricultural growth rates, while Kerala has prioritized
human resource development.
- West Bengal's land reforms have contributed to poverty reduction, and Andhra Pradesh
**Global Poverty Scenario:**

- Extreme economic poverty has reduced globally from 43% in 1990 to 22% in 2008, according to the World Bank.

- The proportion of people living under poverty in different countries is defined by the international poverty line, which means
a population living on less than $1 a day.

- In South-East Asia and China, there has been a decline in poverty due to rapid economic growth and substantial investment in
human resource development.

- In Latin America and the Caribbean, the poverty ratio has remained relatively stable since 1981.

- In Sub-Saharan Africa, poverty increased since 1981, mainly due to successive droughts and other reasons, though it declined
from 51% in 1981 to 47% in 2008.

**Economic Growth:**

- Economic growth is a term that defines an increase in the real output of a country.
 INDIA – SIZE AND LOCATION

Contents
1 India location and size
2 India and World
3 India Neighbours
**India - Size and Location:**
- India, a nation rich in history and endowed with abundant natural resources, has made significant progress in agriculture and
technology since gaining independence.
**Location and Size:**
- India's geographic location places it north of the Equator (00 latitude) entirely within the northern hemisphere.

- The mainland of India spans from latitude 8°4′N to 37°6′N and from longitude 68°7′E to 97°25′E.

- In terms of longitudes, India lies east of the Prime Meridian (00 longitude) and thus falls in the eastern hemisphere.

- The Tropic of Cancer bisects India into two nearly equal halves and traverses eight Indian states.

- India, part of the Asian continent, ranks as the seventh-largest country globally and the third-largest in Asia.

- India possesses two primary groups of islands, namely the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the
Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.

- India's land area constitutes approximately 2.4% of the total geographical area of the world.
- The Himalayan mountain range serves as India's boundary to the northwest, north, and northeast.
- India, as a peninsula, tapers towards the south, dividing the Indian Ocean into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.

- The vast longitudinal extent of India results in a two-hour time difference from the western state of Gujarat to the northeastern
state of Arunachal Pradesh. The Standard Meridian of India, which passes through Uttar Pradesh, is considered the standard
time for the entire country.
**India and the World:**

- India enjoys a strategic central location in the southern part of the Asian continent, situated between the eastern and western
parts of Asia.

- Historically, India's geographical positioning has been instrumental in establishing oceanic trade links with both Europe in the
west and East Asian countries in the east.

- The Deccan Peninsula's extension into the Indian Ocean has facilitated India's close relations with Africa, West Asia, and
Europe from its western coast, as well as with East Asia and Southeast Asia from its eastern coast.

- The Indian Ocean is named after India, underscoring its strategic significance in the region.

- India has historically maintained trade relations with other parts of the world through both land and sea routes. These routes
have played a pivotal role in the exchange of culture, trade, and ideas.

- The influence of India's contributions to mathematics, particularly the decimal number system, has traveled far and wide,
impacting mathematics and science across the globe.

- India's architectural and artistic traditions have also been influenced by other cultures, such as Greek architecture and
sculpture in ancient times, as well as West Asian architectural styles in the early medieval period.

**The Neighbors of India:**

- India is composed of 29 states and 7 Union Territories. Rajasthan is the largest state in terms of land area, while Goa is the
**The Neighbours of India:**

- India is composed of 29 states and 7 Union Territories. Rajasthan is the largest state in terms of land area, while Goa is the
smallest.

- Geographically, India shares its borders with Afghanistan and Pakistan to the northwest, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the
north, and Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east.

- In the southern direction, India maintains maritime boundaries with Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

- Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar. The Maldives,
on the other hand, is situated to the south of India's Lakshadweep Islands.
 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

CONTENTS
1 THE HIMALYAN MOUNTAINS
2 THE NORTHERN PLAIN
3 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU
4 THE INDIAN DESERT
5 THE COASTAL PLAIN
6 THE ISLANDS
**Location:**
- India is a land of diverse physical features, including mountains, plains, deserts, plateaus, and islands, making it a
geographically rich and varied country.

- The color of soil in India varies across regions due to its formation from different types of rocks, which influences its properties
and suitability for various crops.

- India's unique physical features can be explained through the "Theory of Plate Tectonics," which posits that the Earth's crust
consists of several major and minor plates that are in constant motion. The movement of these plates results in geological
processes like folding, faulting, and volcanic activity.

- These physical features can be broadly categorized into distinct physiographic divisions:
**1. The Himalayan Mountains:**

- The Himalayas, often referred to as the "abode of snow," are young-fold mountains that stand as one of the most formidable
and impressive mountain ranges on the planet.

- These mountains extend over 2,400 kilometers, with varying widths ranging from 400 kilometers in the west (Kashmir) to 150
kilometers in the east (Arunachal Pradesh).

- The Himalayas consist of three parallel ranges along their longitudinal extent:
- Great or Inner Himalayas (Himadri)
- Middle Himalayas (Himachal)
- Outer Himalayas (Shiwaliks)

- These three ranges can be further divided into four sections:

- Punjab Himalayas – lying between the Indus and Satluj rivers.

- Kumaon Himalayas – stretching between the Satluj and Kali rivers.

- Nepal Himalayas – covering the region between the Kali and the Tista rivers.

- Assam Himalayas (Eastern Himalayas) – encompassing the land between the Tista and the Dibang (Tsangpo) rivers.
**2. The Northern Plains:**

- The Northern Plains cover a vast expanse of approximately 7 lakh square kilometers, stretching 240 kilometers in length and
ranging in width from 240 kilometers in the west to 320 kilometers in the east.

- These plains are formed by the depositional activities of numerous rivers originating in the Himalayan mountains.

- The Northern Plains exhibit a notable difference in relief, giving rise to four distinct regions:

- Bhabar – A narrow belt of pebbles and boulders adjacent to the foothills of the Shiwaliks, measuring 8 to 16 kilometers in
width.
- Bangar – An older alluvial plain elevated above the level of the flood plains.

- Khadar – A newer and younger alluvial area in the flood plains deposited by the rivers.

- Tarai – An area lying adjacent to the Bhabar region, characterized by newer alluvium and thick forest cover.
**3. The Peninsular Plateau:**

- The Peninsular Plateau is a massive tableland formed due to the breaking and drifting of the ancient supercontinent,
Gondwanaland.

- It is divided into two major divisions: the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.

- The eastern extensions of the Peninsular Plateau are known by local names such as Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The
Chhota Nagpur Plateau, drained by the Damodar River, marks the further eastern extension.

- The Deccan Plateau, a triangular mass, lies to the south of the Narmada River.

- The western and eastern boundaries of the Deccan Plateau are delineated by the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats,
respectively.

- The Western Ghats are generally higher in elevation compared to the Eastern Ghats.

- The Malwa Plateau stretches across the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat, sloping northward.

- A distinctive feature of the Peninsular Plateau is the presence of black soil, known as Deccan Trap, renowned for its fertility
and suitability for cotton cultivation.
**4. The Indian Desert:**
- The Indian Desert, also known as the Thar Desert, encompasses an undulating sandy plain with extensive sand dunes
located towards the western fringes of the Aravalli Hills.

- Crescent-shaped dunes known as barchans cover significant portions of the Indian Desert.
- The Luni River is the primary river flowing through this region, although it does not have a perennial flow.

**5. The Coastal Plains:**

- Coastal plains are narrow strips of land that run parallel to the coasts of India, flanking the Peninsular Plateau.

- On the west coast, these coastal strips are divided into three regions: Konkan (Mumbai-Goa), Kannada Plain, and the
Malabar Coast, spanning from north to south.

- On the east coast, the coastal strip is divided into two regions: Northern Circar and the Coromandel Coast, covering the
northern and southern parts, respectively.

**6. The Islands:**

- India is home to several groups of islands that add to its diverse geography.

- The Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea and are situated close to the coast of Kerala.

- The Andaman and Nicobar Islands consist of two island groups. The Andaman Islands comprise 204 small islands, including
India's only active volcano, Barren Island.
 DRAINAGE

CONTENTS

1 IMPORTANT TERMS

2 DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN INDIA

3 THE HIMALAYAN RIVERS

4 THE PENINSULAR RIVERS

5 ROLE OF RIVERS IN THE ECONOMY

6 RIVER POLLUTION
**Important Terms:**
- **Drainage:** The term drainage describes the river system of an area.
- **Drainage basin:** The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin.
- **Water Divide:** A mountain or upland that separates two drainage basins is known as a water divide.

**Drainage Systems in India:**

India's river system can be divided into two major groups based on the relief features:
1. The Himalayan rivers
2. The Peninsular rivers

**The Himalayan Rivers vs. The Peninsular Rivers:**

*The Himalayan Rivers*

1. Most Himalayan rivers are perennial, meaning they flow throughout the year.
2. They are fed by rain and melted snow.
3. These rivers have long courses from their sources to the sea.
4. Examples include the Indus, Brahmaputra, and Ganga rivers.

*The Peninsular Rivers*

1. Many Peninsular rivers are seasonal, dependent on rainfall.

2. They receive water only from rainfall.
3. These rivers have shorter and shallower courses.
4. Examples include the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri rivers.
**The Himalayan Rivers:**
**The Indus River System:**
- The Indus River originates in Tibet, near Lake Mansarovar.
- It enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir.

- Major tributaries like the Zaskar, Nubra, Shyok, and Hunza join it in the Kashmir region.
- The Indus then flows through Baltistan and Gilgit before entering Pakistan.

- The Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum rivers join the Indus in Pakistan.
- The total length of the Indus is around 3,120 km.

- The Indus flows into the Arabian Sea near Karachi.

**The Ganga River System:**

- The Ganga originates from the Gangotri Glacier and is known as the 'Bhagirathi' at its headwaters.
- It merges with the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand.

- Haridwar marks the point where the Ganga emerges from the mountains onto the plains.
- The Ganga flows through several states, including Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, and West Bengal.

- Major tributaries from the right bank include the Yamuna, Son, Damodar, and Punpun.
- Left bank tributaries are the Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, and Gomati.

- The Ganga is crucial for agriculture and has initiated the 'Namami Gange Programme' to conserve i
**The Brahmaputra River System:**
- The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of Mansarovar lake.
- It is slightly longer than the Indus and flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas.

- After a 'U' turn near the Namcha Barwa, it enters India in Arunachal Pradesh.
- Major tributaries in Arunachal Pradesh include the Lohit, Dibang, and Teesta.

- The Brahmaputra is known as the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.

- This river forms the world's largest river island called Majuli in India.

**The Peninsular Rivers:**

- Drainage basins of Peninsular rivers are comparatively smaller.

- Major eastward flowing rivers include the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, which drain into the Bay of Bengal.

- Westward flowing rivers include the Narmada, Tapi, and numerous smaller streams, draining into the Arabian Sea.

**The Narmada Basin:**

- The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh.

- It flows towards the west in a rift valley formed due to faulting.

- Picturesque locations along the Narmada include the 'Marble rocks' and Dhuadhar falls in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh.
- The Narmada basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
**The Tapi Basin:**
- The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
- Like the Narmada, it flows in a rift valley, running parallel to it.

- Its length is shorter compared to the Narmada.

- The Tapi basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

**The Godavari Basin:**

- The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river, often called the 'Dakshin Ganga.'
- It originates from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra.

- The river's length is about 1500 km.

- The Godavari basin covers parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
- It has several tributaries, including the Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra, Wainganga, and Penganga.

**The Mahanadi Basin:**

- The Mahanadi rises in the highlands of Chhattisgarh and flows through Odisha to reach the Bay of Bengal.
- The river's length is about 860 km, and its basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.

**The Krishna Basin:**

- The Krishna river rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra.
- It flows for about 1400 km and reaches the Bay of Bengal.

- The river has tributaries like the Tungabhadra, Koyona, Ghatprabha, Musi, and Bhima.
- Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
**The Kaveri Basin:**

- The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagiri range of the Western Ghats and reaches the Bay of Bengal in Tamil Nadu
.
- The river is about 760 km long and has tributaries like Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati, and Kabini.

- The Kaveri is famous for the Shivasamudram Falls, the second largest waterfall in India.

- The river flows through Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

**Lakes:**

- Lakes in various parts of India serve as attractions for tourists and provide a range of benefits.

- Lakes can be natural or artificial and vary in size and characteristics.

- They are formed through wind, river action, human activities, glaciers, and ice sheets.

- Examples of lakes include Dal Lake, Chilika Lake, Pulicat Lake, Kolleru Lake, and many others.
**Examples of Different Lakes:**

1. **Freshwater Lakes:** Dal Lake, Wular Lake (Srinagar), Bhimtal (Uttarakhand), Nainital (Uttarakhand), Loktak (Manipur),
Barapani (Meghalaya), and Kolleru Lake (Andhra Pradesh).

2. **Glacial Lakes:** Lonar Lake (Sikkim) and Devtal Lake (Uttarakhand).

3. **Tectonic Lakes:** Wular Lake (Jammu & Kashmir), the largest freshwater lake in India.

4. **Saline Lakes:** Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Pulicat Lake (Andhra Pradesh), with Chilika Lake being the world's second-largest
lagoon.

5. **Ox-bow Lakes:** Vynthala Lake (Kerala) and Karwar Lake (Bihar).

6. **Artificial Lakes:** Guru Gobind Sagar Lake (Himachal Pradesh) and

**Importance of Lakes:**

- Lakes regulate river flow, preventing flooding during heavy rains and ensuring an even flow of water during the dry season.
- They are useful for generating electricity through hydropower.

- Lakes help moderate the climate of their surroundings.

- They maintain aquatic ecosystems and enhance natural beauty.

- Lakes support tourism and provide recreational opportunities

**Role of Rivers in the Economy:**
- Rivers are a primary source of water for various human activities, including irrigation, navigation, and hydropower generation.

**River Pollution:**
- The increasing demands for water from rivers, including domestic, municipal, industrial, and agricultural needs, affect water
quality.

- Industries often discharge untreated waste into rivers, making the water unsuitable for consumption.

- Urbanization and industrialization have reduced the self-cleansing capacity of rivers, increasing pollution levels.

- The Indian government has initiated conservation efforts, such as the Ganga Action Plan and the National River Conservation
Plan, to clean and protect vital rivers like the Ganga and others.

Define gorge - A gorge is like a very deep and narrow valley with high, rocky walls. It's formed by a river or stream slowly cutting
through the land over a long time. Gorges can look pretty amazing!
**Introduction:**
- The French Revolution, which began with the storming of the Bastille prison on July 14, 1789, is a significant event in world
history.

**Causes of the French Revolution:**

**Inequalities in French Society:**

- French society was divided into three estates:
- **First Estate**: Clergy, including priests and religious leaders.

- **Second Estate**: Nobility, comprising the aristocracy with special privileges.

- **Third Estate**: Common people, primarily peasants, making up 90% of the population.

**Economic Disparities:**

- While the majority of the population was in the third estate, they owned very little land.
- The first and second estates were exempt from taxes, leaving the tax burden on the third estate.

- The nobility and clergy enjoyed privileges such as extracting dues from peasants and demanding their labor and military service.
- The third estate faced financial difficulties due to direct and indirect taxes.
**The Revolt Begins:**
**Financial Crisis:**
- Heavy debt from wars and the need to pay interests led to increased taxes.
- King Louis XVI called the Estates-General to impose new taxes.
- The third estate demanded equal representation and established the National Assembly.

**Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789):**

- Commoners' symbolic revolt as they stormed a royal prison, the Bastille.
- King Louis XVI recognized the National Assembly and agreed to a new constitution.

**France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy:**

- The National Assembly drafted a constitution that limited the king's powers.
- Different institutions held executive, legislative, and judicial powers.
- Active citizens had voting rights, and the constitution guaranteed basic rights.
- The monarchy remained but with reduced powers.

**Abolition of Monarchy:**

- King Louis XVI sought foreign help; revolutionaries declared war.

- The Jacobin Club was formed, representing shopkeepers, daily wage earners, and more.
- In 1792, people stormed the Tuileries Palace, leading to imprisonment of the royal family.
- The monarchy was abolished, and France became a republic.
- King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were executed.
**Reign of Terror:**

- Reign of Terror (1793-1794) under Robespierre's rule.

- Severe control and punishment, including mass executions.
- Fixed prices, rationed food, and closed churches.
- Robespierre was executed in 1794.

**The Directory and Rise of Napoleon:**

- The Directory was appointed as an executive council and frequently clashed with legislative councils.
- Political instability paved the way for Napoleon Bonaparte's rise.

**Women's Participation:**

- Women actively participated in the revolution.

- Women's clubs demanded equal political rights.
- Laws improved the condition of women in French society.
**Abolition of Slavery:**

- Jacobins abolished slavery in French colonies.

**Impact of the French Revolution:**

- Napoleon spread revolutionary ideas throughout Europe.

- His measures influenced modern laws and rights.
- The French Revolution's ideals of liberty, equality, and democracy had a lasting impact worldwide.

- *Tipu Sultan and Raja Ram Mohan Roy in India were inspired by the French Revolution.*