UNIT IV

ENERGY CONVERSIONS
AND STORAGE
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMSTRY
MIT CAMPUS, ANNA UNIVERSITY
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

INTRODUCTION

The only clean, safe energy source capable of

ensuring the continuation of our industrial
civilization while protecting the environment.
by Bruno Comby
Environmentalist (Nuclear)
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

• Nuclear energy is the energy that binds the protons and neutrons together in the
nucleus (core) of an atom. Sometimes, a big nucleus splits into two smaller ones,
releasing energy in the process. This process is called nuclear fission. The energy
released is converted into heat, which can be used to drive a turbine and generate
electricity.

• Nuclear energy is a clean, safe, reliable and competitive energy source. It is the only
source of energy that can replace a significant part of the fossil fuels (coal, oil and
gas) which massively pollute the atmosphere and contribute to the greenhouse
effect.

• In burning fossil fuels, we inject 23 billion tons of carbon dioxide every year into the
atmosphere – 730 tons per second. Half of it is absorbed in the seas and vegetation,
but half remains in the atmosphere. This is significantly altering the composition of
the atmosphere and seriously affecting the climate of our planet.
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Nuclear Fission
• It is the nuclear reaction in which heavy isotopes are split into lighter
nuclei on bombardment by neutrons. Fission reaction of U235 is given
below:

92 U
235
+0n ⎯⎯
1
→36Kr +56 Ba +3 0 n +energy
92 141 1
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Nuclear Fission

• Fission is not a spontaneous process. It can only occur when a slow moving neutron strikes an
unstable nucleus.

• In this decay process, the nucleus will split into two nearly equal nuclei and release several free
neutrons and huge amounts of energy.

• These nuclei are isotopes of more stable elements. If left alone, they decay radioactively by emitting
alpha or beta particles.

• On average, three neutrons are released. These can go on to be absorbed by other nuclei if they are
slowed down by a moderator (a medium, such as graphite, heavy water, and beryllium that causes
the neutrons to travel more slowly).
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Nuclear Fission

• If these neutrons are absorbed by other nuclei, this causes a chain reaction.

• For the chain reaction to occur there has to be a critical mass.

• For uranium, this is about the size of a tennis ball. The critical mass has a mass of about

• 15 kg (uranium has a very high density, 19 g/cm3). Anything less, the neutrons escape without
setting off a chain reaction.

• If the chain reaction is not controlled, a nuclear explosion will occur.

UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Structure of fission reaction

 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Nuclear Fusion

• Process of combination of lighter nuclei into heavier nucleus with

simultaneous liberation of large amount of energy.
(e.g) solar system.

H1 +1H ⎯⎯→2He +energy

2 2 4
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Nuclear fusion reaction occurs in sun.
• When fusion happens, the products have a larger binding energy than
the reactants. The mass defect results in the release of huge amounts of energy.
• Actually produces more energy per gram of products than fission and
produces no by-products.

Why isn’t it used yet then for energy production?

It currently requires more energy to initiate the reaction than it produces.
Heat produced is so intense that containment vessels melt.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Why does fusion require energy?

• To combine, two nuclei must be close enough for the strong nuclear force to join them.

• But when the positive nuclei approach, the electrostatic force of repulsion is greater than the nuclear
force. This means that the nuclei must be HIGHLY energetic to overcome the repulsion force.
• This means HIGH temperatures (millions of degrees Celsius), which is difficult to achieve while containing
the atoms.
• Nuclear fusion is the energy-producing process taking place in the core of the Sun and stars.

• The core temperature of the Sun is about 15 million °C. At these temperatures, four hydrogen atoms fuse
in a series of reactions to form a single helium atom and give off huge amounts of energy.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FISSION AND FUSION REACTION

S.No Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

1. It is a process of breaking a heavier It is a process of combination of lighter nuclei.

nucleons.
2. It emits radioactive rays It does not emit any kind of radioactive rays
The mass number and atomic number The mass number and atomic number of product
3.
of new elements are lower. is higher than that of starting elements

4. It occurs at ordinary temperature It occurs at high temperature

5. It gives rise to chain reaction It does not give rise to chain reaction

6. It emits neutrons It emits positrons

7. It can be controlled It cannot be controlled

 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS
•A nuclear chain reaction occurs when one nuclear reaction causes on
the average one or more nuclear reactions, thus leading to a self-
propagating number of these reactions. The specific nuclear reaction may
be: the fission of heavy isotopes (e.g. 235 U) or the fusion of light isotopes
(e.g. H and H)
2 3
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS - Fission
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

The production of 2-3 neutrons in each fission event makes it possible to use fission chain reactions for
the production of energy.

A schematic nuclear fission chain reaction

1. A uranium-235 atom absorbs a neutron and fissions into two new atoms (fission fragments),
releasing three new neutrons and some binding energy.

2. One of these neutrons is absorbed by an atom of uranium-238 and does not continue the reaction.

Another neutron is simply lost and does not collide with anything, also not continuing the reaction.
However one neutron does collide with an atom of uranium-235, which then fissions and releases two
neutrons and some binding energy.
3. Both of these neutrons collide with uranium-235 atoms, each of which fissions and releases
between one and three neutrons, which can then continue the reaction.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Mean Generation Time Λ is the average time from a neutron emission to a
capture that results in a fission Λ =10−7−10−8 c

80th generation in 10-5−10-6 c: during this time 280=1024 neutrons are produced
which lead to

¾ the fission of 1024 nuclei (140 g) of 235U

¾ = release of 3.1013 Watt of energy (1W=1J/c, 1 eV = 1.602.10−19 J)

¾ which is equivalent to 1000 tonnes of oil.

 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Controlled chain reactions are possible with the isotopes 235U, 233U and 239Pu.

• The chemical element isotopes that can sustain a fission chain reaction are called nuclear fuels, and
are said to be fissile.

• The most common nuclear fuels are 235U (the isotope of uranium with an atomic mass of 235 and of
use in nuclear reactors) and 239Pu (the isotope of plutonium with an atomic mass of 239).

The effective neutron multiplication factor, k, is the average number of neutrons from one fission that
causes another fission.

k= number of neutrons in one generation

number of neutrons in prceeding generation
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Fission chain reaction chain reactions are used
• Nuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions
occur, and that control is maintained through the use of several redundant layers of safety
measures. Moreover, the materials in a nuclear reactor core and the uranium enrichment
level make a nuclear explosion impossible, even if all safety measures failed.
• Nuclear weapons are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and
intense that it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this
1uncontrolled reaction can lead to an explosive energy release.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

The enormous amount of energy released during the nuclear fission is due to the loss in
some mass. During nuclear fission, the sum of the masses of the products formed is slightly less
than the sum of masses oftarget species and bombarding neutron. The loss in mass gets converted
into energy according to Einsteins equation
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
NUCLEAR REACTOR
Light Water Nuclear Power plant
Light water nuclear power plant is one in which U235 feel rods are submerged in
water. Here the water acts as coolant and moderator.
• The fission reaction is controlled by inserting or removing the control rods of B10
automatically from the spaces I between the fuel rods

• The heat emitted by U235 in the fuel core is absorbed by the coolant

• Heat is transferred to sea water and then converted into steam.

• The steam then drives the turbines, generating electricity.

UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Structure of light water nuclear power plant

 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Breeder Reactor

A nuclear reactor with conversion or multiplication factor greater than one is a breeder reactor.
A breeder reactor generates fissionable nuclei from fertile nuclei. E.g., the fertile material like
uranium-238 is converted into fissile94Pu239 by using slow neutrons. Pu 94
239
undergoes fission
and produces energy.

−
92 U 238
+0 n1
⎯⎯
→ 94 P u 239
+2e

94 U 239
+0 ⎯⎯
n1
→Fissio n +Energy
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

• A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates new fissile or fissionable material at a
greater rate than it consumes such material. These reactors were initially (1940s and 1960s)
considered appealing due to their superior fuel economy; a normal reactor is able to consume
less than 1% of the natural uranium that begins the fuel cycle, whereas a breeder can utilize a
much greater percentage of the initial fissionable material, and with re-processing, can use
almost all of the initial fissionable material.
• Breeders can be designed to utilize thorium, which is more abundant than uranium. Currently,
there is renewed interest in breeders because they would consume less natural uranium (less
than 3% compared to conventional light-water reactors), and generate less waste, for equal
amounts of energy, by converting non-fissile isotopes of uranium into nuclear fuel.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

• Production of fissile material in a reactor occurs by neutron irradiation of fertile material,

particularly uranium-238 and thorium-232.
• In a breeder reactor, these materials are deliberately provided, either in the fuel or in a
breeder blanket surrounding the core, or most commonly in both.
• Production of fissile material takes place to some extent in the fuel of all current commercial
nuclear power reactors. Towards the end of its life, a uranium PWR fuel element is producing
more power from the fission of plutonium than from the remaining uranium-235. Historically,
in order to be called a breeder, a reactor must be specifically designed to create more fissile
material than it consumes.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION

• In ancient times, wood was the most common source of heat energy. The energy of
flowing water and wind was also used for limited activities. Can you think of some of
these uses? The exploitation of coal as a source of energy made the industrial
revolution possible. Increasing industrialization has led to a better quality of life all
over the world. It has also caused the global demand for energy to grow at a
tremendous rate. The growing demand for energy was largely met by the fossil fuels
– coal and petroleum.

• Our technologies were also developed for using these energy sources. But these fuels
were formed over millions of years ago and there are only limited reserves. The fossil
fuels are non-renewable sources of energy, so we need to conserve them. If we were
to continue consuming these sources at such alarming rates, we would soon run out
of energy!
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION

• In order to avoid this, alternate sources of energy were explored. But we

continue to be largely dependent on fossil fuels for most of our energy
requirements.

• Energy development is increasingly dominated by major global concerns of

over- population, air pollution, fresh water pollution, coastal pollution,
deforestation, biodiversity loss, and global climate deterioration. To prevent
disastrous global consequences, it would increasingly be impossible to engage
in large-scale energy-related activities without insuring their sustainability,
even for developing countries in which there is a perceived priority of energy
development and use and power generation over their impact on the
environment, society, and indeed on the energy sources themselves.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

• Solar Cells

• A device which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from the sun) directly
into electrical energy is called ‘Solar cell’. This is also called as ‘Photovoltaic cell’.

Principle

• The basic principle involved in the solar cells is based on the photovoltaic (PV)
effect. When sun rays fall on the two layers of semiconductor devices, potential
difference between the two layers is produced. This potential difference causes
flow of electrons and thus produces electricity.

Example: Silicon solar cell

 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Construction
Solar cell consists of a p-type (such as Si doped with boron) and an n-type (such as Si doped with
phosphorous) semiconductor plates. They are in close contact with each other.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Working
When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence band get
promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor. Thereby potential
difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons (i.e. electric current). The potential
difference and hence current increases as more solar rays falls on the surface of the top layer. Thus, when this p-
and n- layers are connected to an external circuit, electrons flow from n-layer to p-layer and hence current is
generated.

Applications of Solar Cells

(i) Solar cells are used in street lights.

(ii) Water pumps are operated by using solar batteries.
(iii) They are used in calculators, watches, radios and TVs.
(iv) They are used for eco-friendly driving vehicles.
(v) Silicon Solar cells are used as power source in space crafts and satellites.
(vi) Solar cells can even be used in remote places and in forests to get electrical energy without affecting the
atmosphere.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Wind Energy

Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the forces of wind is called
wind energy.

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as
electricity, using wind turbines. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate
capacity of wind-powered generators was 121.2 gigawatts (GW).

Wind turbines produce electricity by using the natural power of the wind to
drive a generator.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Wind Energy

Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the forces of wind is called wind energy.
• Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form, such as electricity, using wind turbines. At the end of
2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 121.2 gigawatts (GW).
• Wind turbines produce electricity by using the natural power of the wind to drive a generator.
• The wind is a clean and sustainable fuel source, it does not create emissions and it will
never run out as it is constantly replenished by energy from the sun.
• In many ways, wind turbines are the natural evolution of traditional windmills, but now typically have three blades,
which rotate around a horizontal hub at the top of a steel tower.
• Most wind turbines start generating electricity at wind speeds of around 3-4 metres per second (m/s), (8 miles per
hour); generate maximum ‘rated’ power at around 15 m/s (30mph); and shut down to prevent storm damage at 25 m/s
or above (50mph).
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Wind Energy
Working

• Generating electricity from the wind is simple: Wind passes over the blades
exerting a turning force. The rotating blades turn a shaft inside the nacelle,
which goes into a gearbox.
• The gearbox increases the rotation speed for the generator, which uses
magnetic fields to convert the rotational energy into electrical energy.
• The power output goes to a transformer, which converts the electricity from
the generator at around 700 Volts (V) to the right voltage for the distribution
system, typically between 11 kV and 132 kV.
• The regional electricity distribution networks or National Grid transmit the
electricity around the country, and on into homes and businesses.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Wind Energy - Components of a typical wind turbine

UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Wind Energy
Advantages
(i) It is cheap and economical.
(ii) It is renewable
(iii) It does not cause pollution.

Disadvantages
(i) They produce noise.
(ii) Wind farms erected on the migratory routes of birds create
problems.
(iii) Wind turbines interfere with electromagnetic signals.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
STORAGE DEVICES
BATTERIES

Battery is a device that stores chemical energy and releases it as electrical

energy. Hence a device which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy is called battery, cell, or storage battery.

A battery is an electrochemical cell which is often connected in series in

electrical devices as a source of direct electric current at a constant
voltage. A cell contains one anode and one cathode. The emf of a single
cell is around 2 volt. A battery contains several anode and cathode. The
emf of a battery which contains six anodes and six cathodes is around 12V.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
STORAGE DEVICES
BATTERIES: Batteries are classified as follows:

(i) Primary battery

(ii) Secondary battery and

(iii) Fuel battery or Flow battery

Primary Battery

Primary battery is a cell in which the cell reaction is not reversible. Thus, once the chemical reaction takes
place to release the electrical energy, the cell gets exhausted. They are use and throw type.

Example: Dry cell, Leclanche cell etc.

 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
STORAGE DEVICES – BATTERIES

Dry Cell or Leclanche’s Cell

A cell without fluid component is called as dry cell. Example: Daniel Cell, Alkaline
Battery.

Construction and Working

The anode of the cell is zinc container containing an electrolyte consisting of NH4Cl,
ZnCl2 and MnO2 to which starch is added to make it thick paste-like so that is less likely
to leak. A graphite rod serves as the cathode, which is immersed in the electrolyte in
the centre of the cell.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
The dry cell is a primary battery, since no reaction is reversible by supplying electricity. Dry cell is
very cheap to make. It gives voltage of about 1.5 V.
Advantages : (i) When current is drawn rapidly, drop in voltage occurs.
(ii) Since the electrolyte is acidic, Zn dissolves slowly even if it is not in use.
Uses : Dry cells are used in flash-lights, transistor radios, calculators, etc.,
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Secondary Battery

Secondary battery is a cell in which the cell reaction is reversible. They are rechargeable
cells. Once the battery gets exhausted, it can be recharged.

Example: Nickel-Cadmium cell, Lead-acid cell (storage cell), etc.

Lead–Acid Storage Cell

The typical example for storage cell is Lead-acid storage cell. A secondary battery can
operate as a voltaic cell and as an electrolytic cell. When it acts as a voltaic cell, it supplies
electrical energy and becomes run down. When it is recharged, the cell operates as an
electrochemical cell.

Construction and Working

A lead – acid storage cell consists of a number of voltaic cells (3 to 6) connected in series
to get 6 to 12 V battery. In each cell, a number of Pb plates, used as anodes are connected in
parallel and a number of PbO2 plates, used as cathodes are connected in parallel. The plates are
separated by insulators like rubber or glass fibre. The entire combination is immersed in 20%
dil.H2SO4.
The cell is represented as:

Pb | PbSO4 || H2SO4 || PbSO4 | PbO2 | Pb

When the lead-acid storage battery operates, the following cell reactions occur.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY

Anodic Reaction
Oxidation reaction takes place at anode. The electrons are released from anode. Hence
the anode is called as negative anode and is represented as (-). Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions and
gives two electron, which further combines with S O 4 2 - to form insoluble PbSO4

P b ( s ) +S O 24− ⎯⎯
→PbSO4( s ) +2 e−

Cathodic Reaction
Reduction takes place at cathode. Hence the cathode is called as positive cathode and is
2+ 2−
represented as (+). PbO2 is reduced to Pb ions, which further combines with SO 4 to form
insoluble PbSO4.

P b O 2 ( s ) +4 H + +S O 24− +2 e − ⎯⎯
→PbSO4 ( s ) +2H2O
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY

Overall cell reaction during discharging

Pb(s) +PbO 2 (s) +2H 2 SO 4 (aq) ⎯d⎯ ⎯⎯⎯

isc harg ing
→PbSO 4 (s) +2H 2 O +energy
From the above cell reactions, it is clear that PbSO4 is precipitated at both the electrodes
and the concentration of H2SO4 decreases. So, the battery needs recharging.
Overall cell reaction during recharging
The cell can be recharged by passing electric current in the opposite direction. The
electrode reaction gets reversed. As a result, Pb is deposited on anode and PbO2 on the cathode.
The concentration of H2SO4 also increases.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

LEAD-ACID STORAGE BATTERY

Advantages of Lead–Acid batteries
1. It is made easily.
2. It produces very high current.
3. The self discharging rate is low.
4. It works effectively even at low temperatures.

Uses
1. Lead – acid batteries are used in cars, buses, trucks etc.
2. It is used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, and power stations
hospitals.
3. IT industry, educational institutions, laboratories etc.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Li–Ion Batteries
Li-Ion Batteries consist of a three primary functional components. The main components
of a Li-ion battery device are the positive electrode, negative electrode and the electrolyte, for
which a variety of materials may be used.
Generally, the most useful material for the positive electrode is one of three materials:
lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, or a spinel such as lithium MnO2.
On the other hand, the most common materials for the negative electrode are carbon
based compounds and lithium- containing alloys.
Upon charging, lithium ions are extracted from the positive electrode material and inserted
into the negative electrode material. Upon discharging, the reverse process takes place. Common
batteries should exhibit three characteristics:
(a) high energy and power capacity,
(b) high charging rate, and
( c ) lo n g lifetim e (cy clin g stability).
Although Li-ion batteries are available commercially, the performance of Li-ion batteries
is limited bythe current electrode and electrolyte materials. For future generations of rechargeable
Li-ion batteries, not only for applications in portable electronic devices but especially for clean
energy storage and use in hybrid electric vehicles, further improvements of materials are essential.
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Lithium ion cell during charging and discharging

We need to find new, efficient and effective ways to improve the physical and
chemical characteristics of the materials for use in electrochemical Li-ion batteries.
UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Fuel Battery or Flow Battery

Flow battery is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical reaction into
electrical energy. When the reactants are exhausted, new chemicals replace them.

Example: Hydrogen-oxygen cell, Aluminium-air cell, etc.

In Aluminium-air cell, when the cell is exhausted, a new aluminium rod is used and
the solution is diluted with more water as the electrochemical reaction involves aluminium and
water.

FUEL CELLS

First developed by William Grove in 1839, Grove was experimenting on

electrolysis (the process by which water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by an electric
current), when he observed that combining the same elements could also produce an electric
current.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device. It produces electricity from
fuel (on the anode side) and an oxidant (on the cathode side), which react in the presence
of an electrolyte. The reactants flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it,
while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells can operate virtually continuously as long as
the necessary flows are maintained.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Fuel Cells are different from electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant
from an external source, which must be replenished – a thermodynamically open system. By
contrast, batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a thermodynamically
closed system.
Many combinations of fuels and oxidants are possible. A hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen
as its fuel and oxygen (usually from air) as its oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and
alcohols. Other oxidants include chlorine and chlorine dioxide.

Classification of Fuel Cells

Based on the type of Electrolyte

1. Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

2. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)

3. Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)

4. Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)

5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

6. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE
Hydrogen Oxygen Fuel Cells

• In Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells, protons move through the electrolyte
to the cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and heat.
• Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell uses a polymeric membrane as the
electrolyte, with platinum electrodes.
• These cells operate at relatively low temperatures.
• These cells are the best candidates for cars, for buildings and smaller applications. Polymer
Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells—also called proton exchange membrane fuel
cells—deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume,
compared to other fuel cells.

• PEM fuel cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes
containing a platinum catalyst.
• They only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do not require
corrosive fluids like some fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied
from storage tanks or onboard reformers.
• The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning, making it necessary to
employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from
an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost.
• Developers are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to
CO.
 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells

AT ANODE : H2  2H + + 2e-

AT CATHODE : ½ O2 + 2 H+ + 2e-  H2O

OVERALL REACTION : H2 + ½ O2  Electricity + H2O + Heat

 UNIT IV ENERGY CONVERSIONS AND STORAGE

Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cells

Advantages

1. They are efficient and instant in operation.

2. They are pollution free.

3. They produce electric current directly from the reaction of a fuel and an oxidizer.
4. They are light in weight

Disadvantages
1. Fuel cells cannot store electric energy.
2. Electrodes are expensive and short lived.
3. H2 should be pure.

Applications

1. H2−O 2 fu el cells are used in space crafts, submarines to get electricity

2 . In H 2 −O 2 fuel cell, the product water is a valuable source of fresh water for
astronauts.