Organizational Behaviour

Dr.S.Madhivanan
PERCEPTION
Perception
 PERCEPTION

The ability to hear or become aware of something

through the senses.
Perception is the organization, identification and
interpretaion of sensory information in order to
represent and understand the presented
information
 Factors influencing perception

Situational factors
Perceivers characteristics
Characteristics of the perceived
 Situational factors

Characteristics of the Situation: Situational context,

including time, location, and social setting, can
influence perception.
For example, during an economic crisis,
employers may have a more negative perception of
current company performance compared to an
economic boom.
 Situational factors

Physical setting- Style of grooming

Social setting- Based on social norms
Organizational setting-How we relate things
 Physical setting

Style of dress and grooming are important, especially

in professional contexts.
We interpret things based on their physical nature
Social setting
 Organizational setting

How it has been organized?

Based on arrangements we able to perceive things.
Ex. Marriage decoration.
 Perceiver

A person whose awareness is focused on the

stimulus, and thus begins to perceive it
 Perceivers characteristics

Needs and motives

Self concept
Beliefs
Past experiences
Current psychological state
expectations.
 Needs and motives

Psychological needs are the basis for motives, such

as achievement, affiliation/belonging, autonomy,
closure, cognition, competence, meaning, power, and
self-esteem.
 SELF CONCEPT

Self-concept is an overarching idea we have about

who we are—physically, emotionally, socially,
spiritually, and in terms of any other aspects that
make up who we are
PESSISIMIST
 Belief

belief is typically defined as an internal mental state

(e.g., a mental model) or a disposition that is often
associated with a particular response that could be in
the form of a statement or an action
 Past experience

Past experiences are the things that have made up

our life up until this point.
 Current psychological state

Any short lived emotional state.

 Expectations

Expectations are the strong belief that something

will happen or be the case.
 Characteristics of the perceived

Nature
Size
Appearance
location
 PROCESS OF PERCEPTION

Receiving stimuli
Selection of stimuli
Organizing
Interpreting
Memory
Recall
Stimulus
STIMULI
 Receiving stimuli

The perceptual process begins with receiving stimuli

from the environment and ends with our
interpretation of those stimuli.
This process is typically unconscious and happens
hundreds of thousands of times a day.
When we attend to or select one specific thing in our
environment, it becomes the attended stimulus.
 Selection of stimuli

There are certain factors that impacts selection of

stimuli they are
External & Internal factors
 External factors influencing stimuli

Nature
Location
Colour
Size
Contrast
Movement
Repetition
 Internal factors influencing stimuli

Learning
Psychological need
Age difference
Interest
Ambivalence (confused stage)
Paranoid perception(unusual)
 Perceptual organization

It is based on
Figure ground principle
Principle of similarity
Principle of proximity
Principle of closure
Principle of continuity
 Figure ground principle

The figure-ground principle states that people

instinctively perceive objects as either being in the
foreground or the background.
Human's ability to visually differentiate between an
object and its background
Figure ground principle
 The principle of similarity

The principle of similarity simply states that when

items share some visual characteristic, they are
assumed to be related in some way.
The items don't need to be identical, but simply
share at least one visible trait such as color, shape, or
size to be perceived as part of the same group.
Principle of similarity
 Principle of proximity
The principle of proximity states that things that are
close together appear to be more related than things
that are spaced farther apart.
Principle of proximity
Principle of closure
 Principle of closure

The principle of closure states that people will fill in

blanks to perceive a complete object whenever an
external stimulus partially matches that object.
Even when we're missing information, we tend to
make sense of our environment by filling in the gaps
to see a complete object.
Principle of continuity
 Principle of continuity

The principle of continuity states that the total

volume of the fluid entering the pipe is equal to the
sum of the total volume of the fluid leaving the pipe
and the volume of fluid held back inside the pipe.
Interpretation
 Factors contributing to Interpretation of
perception

Perceptual set
Attribution
Stereotyping
Halo effect
 Perceptual set

Perceptual set is a tendency to perceive or notice

some aspects of the available sensory data
and ignore others
It's a cognitive bias that affects the way people
interpret things based on their expectations and past
experiences.
 Perceptual set

A simple example of perceptual set would be if

researchers asked ten participants to describe the
same bouquet of flowers.
 The participants would likely give ten different
descriptions, even though they would all be looking
at the same flowers.
 Perceptual set-Examples

A song might appear sadder if we listen to it while

sad. Or, if you're already nervous, a small problem,
such as not being able to find an important
document, can appear to be a huge deal.
 But if you encounter the same issue while in a better
mood, you may perceive it as something you can
easily overcome.

 Attribution

How individuals perceive the causes of

everyday experience, as being either external
or internal.
 Attribution-Examples

Maria's car breaks down on the freeway. If she

believes the breakdown happened because of her
ignorance about cars, she is making an internal
attribution.
 If she believes that the breakdown happened
because her car is old, she is making an external
attribution
 Stereotyping

Stereotype is the fixed notion or image of a

group/person without any regard for their
individuality. This has no rational or scientific basis.
Examples:
Boys are not as good at listening to instructions and
are less attentive.
 Halo effect

The halo effect occurs when our overall positive

impression of a person, product, or brand is based on
a single characteristic.
Example:Buying organic products perceiving those are
good for health.
 Horn effect

The horn effect is the tendency for a negative

impression made in one context to influence our
judgment in another.
Examples :if a person is overweight, they must also
be lazy.
 Learning

 It is a relatively permanent change in behavior that

results from experience
Learning is defined as the process that leads to
change, which occurs as a result of experience and
increases the potential for improved performance
and future learning”
 Learning process

Attention
Expectancy
Retrieval of relevant information
Selective perception
Entry of information to long term storage
Responding
feedback
Cueing of retrieval
 Attention

Attention is a state of consciousness in which a

person can respond to a stimulus or stimuli.
 In psychology, a stimulus can be a required task, an
object, or an event that requires a response.
Attention is a combination of how long a person can
focus and how many things they can focus on.
Types of attention
 Expectancy

Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will

result in attainment of desired performance (P)
goals. Usually based on an individual's past
experience, self-confidence (self efficacy),
 Retrieval of relevant information

Information retrieval (IR) is a process that facilitates

the effective and efficient retrieval of relevant
information from large collections of unstructured or
semi-structured data.
 Selective perception
Selective perception is the unconscious process by
which people screen, select, and notice objects in
their environment.
During this process, information tends to be
selectively perceived in ways that align with existing
attitudes, beliefs, and goals.
 Selective perception-examples

A person who strongly identifies with a particular

political party or ideology might only watch news
channels or read newspapers that align with their
views. They might dismiss or overlook information
from sources that present opposing viewpoints, even
if the information is factual and unbiased.
 Selective perception-examples

A consumer who has loyalty to a particular brand

might only notice advertisements or promotions
related to that brand while shopping, ignoring other
competing brands. Even if a competing brand offers
a better deal, the consumer’s selective perception
might lead them to choose the familiar brand.
In the below image, find the number
of food items.
 For example, when counting the number of food
items, the brain selectively perceives the images
rather than the text.
 If asked to memorize the numbers, the brain glosses
over the images.
 Entry of information to long term storage

In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-

term memory), it has to pass through three distinct
stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and
finally Long-Term Memory.
 Sensory memory

Sensory memory in psychology refers to the short-

term retention of sensory information, like sights,
sounds, and smells, immediately following stimuli
input.
Sensory memory holds sensory information for very
brief periods of time, usually 1 second or less
 Examples-Sensory memory

Stopping at a stoplight. The brain recognizes the

event and stores it long enough to use the
information to stop at the stoplight.
 After the stoplight, the brain erases the information.
 Short-Term Memory

he memory systems in the brain involved in

remembering pieces of information for a short
period of time, often up to 30 seconds
 Example

Remembering a person's name shortly after being

introduced. Recalling a phone number to write it
down after the number is given verbally.
 Long term memory

Long-term memories are memories stored over

an extended period of time. These can be
memories from an hour ago or from decades earlier
 Types of learners

Divergers
Assimilators
Convergers
Accommodators
 Divergers

Diverges look at things from different perspectives,

they are observers and use imagination to solve
problems. They are interested in people, are sensitive
and tend to be strong in the arts
Mostly reflective in behavior
 Example- Reflective behaviour

Nursing student has to learn new procedure as a part

of their clinical education.
 After learning that procedure student might think
about how they could have done the procedure
better.
 Examples of divergers

Artists, musicians ,counselors and people with a

strong interest in fine arts.
 Assimilators

Assimilators are guided by logic and are great at

organizing information in a clear and logical format.
They are more focused on abstract concepts and less
interested in people.
They tend to be strong in science careers.
 Example

Assimilation involves fitting a new experience into

an existing schema.
For example, once a child has a schema for birds
based on the types of birds they have seen in their
garden, they are able to incorporate new types of
birds (e.g. parrots, seagulls) into their existing bird
schema.
 Convergers

People with this learning style have dominant

abilities in the areas of abstract conceptualization
and active experimentation
They are highly skilled in the practical application of
ideas and tend to be best in situations with a
problem that requires best solution.
 Convergent thinking

Solving a mathematical equation based on logical

steps
Convergent thinking is the process of choosing the
best answer for the problem.
 Example

 If you're trying to decide which restaurant to go to

for dinner.
Then Consider location, price, cuisine, and reviews
to narrow your options.
Eventually, you'll arrive at a single choice that meets
all your criteria, and that's an example of convergent
thinking in action.
 Accommodators

Learn through concrete experimentation .

They relies on intuition more than the logics
They are attracted towards new chalenges and
experiences.
 Example

One classic example of accommodation involves a

child who understands that a four-legged creature is
called a dog.
Then, the child encounters a cat and refers to it as a
dog until corrected by a parent.
After being corrected, the child can distinguish
between a dog and a cat.
 What is type of learning behaviour comes
out of this practise?

Determining the correct answer to a multiple choice

question.
Brain storming is related with ........type of learning
behaviour.
 Theories of learning

Classical Conditioning,
Operant Conditioning,
Cognitive Theory, and
Social Learning
Author of classical conditioning
 Unconditioned stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that leads to

an automatic response.
 Unconditioned response

Unconditioned response is an unlearned response

that occurs naturally in reaction to the
unconditioned stimulus.
For example, if the smell of food is the
unconditioned stimulus, the feeling of hunger in
response to the smell of food is the unconditioned
response.
 Conditioned response

A conditioned response is a behavior that does not

come naturally, but must be learned by the
individual by pairing a neutral stimulus with a potent
stimulus.
The potent stimulus is one that does not require any
learning or conditioning to respond to appropriately.
EX. If you witness a terrible car accident, you might
develop a fear of driving
 Conditioning theory

Classical conditioning is a type of conditioning in

which an individual responds to some stimulus that
would not ordinarily produce, such a response.
It is the process of learning to associate a particular
thing in our environment with predicting what will
happen next.
 3 Stages of classical conditioning

Stage 1:Before conditioning (or learning)

Stage 2:During conditioning
Stage 3:After conditioning
 Stage 1:Before conditioning (or learning)
Before conditioning (or learning) –When Pavlov
presented one dog with a piece of meat, the dog
exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation.
The food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that
results in an automatic, biologically built-
in unconditioned response (UCR) – in this case,
salivating.
When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and
merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate.
 Stage 2:During conditioning

Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the

ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell
before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as
soon as the bell rang.
 Stage 2:During conditioning

After conditioning – When the bell (CS) has been

paired with the food (UCS) enough times, it makes
the dog salivate (now a CR).
The conditioned stimulus leads to a conditioned
response.
 Stage 3:After conditioning

After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the

sound of the bell, even if no food was offered.
Stage 3. After learning – Bell produces salivation.
Operant conditioning
 Skinner- Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning argues that one’s behavior will

depend on different situations. People will
repeatedly behave in a specific way from where they
will get benefits.
On the other hand, they will try to avoid a behavior
from which they will get nothing. Skinner argued
that creating pleasing consequences for specific
behavior forms would increase that behavior’s
frequency.
 Skinner- Operant conditioning

Operant conditioning, sometimes called

instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian
conditioning, is a method of learning that
uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.
Through operant conditioning, behavior that is
rewarded is likely to be repeated, while behavior that
is punished is prone to happen less.
 Skinner identified three types of responses

Neutral responses. They are responses from the

environment that produce no stimulus other than
focusing attention. They neither increase nor decrease
the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Rein forcers. They are responses from the
environment that increase the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated
Punishers. These are negative operants that
decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment
weakens behavior.
 Positive reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is a type of operant

conditioning, a type of learning that uses rewards
and punishment to influence behavior
 Skinners experiment

In one famous experiment displaying operant

learning, psychologist B.F. Skinner trained rats to
press a lever to get food.
In this experiment, a hungry rat was placed in a box
containing a lever attached to some concealed food.
At first, the rat ran around the box randomly.
In this process, it happens to press the lever, and the
food is dropped into the box.
The dropping of food reinforced the responsibility of
pressing the lever.
After repeating the process of pressing the lever,
followed by dropping off food many times, the rat
learned to press the lever for food.
People will most likely engage in desired behaviors if
they are positively reinforced for doing so. Rewards
are most effective if they immediately follow the
desired response. Also, behavior that is not
rewarded, or is punished, is less likely to be repeated.
 Punishers response

In another experiment, a rat was placed in a cage in

which they were subjected to an uncomfortable
electrical current (see diagram above).
As they moved around the cage, the rat hit the lever,
which immediately switched off the electrical current
(negative reinforcement). The rats quickly learned to
go straight to the lever after a few times of being put
in the box.
 Cognitive learning theory

Prior learning
Behavioural choice
Perceived consequences
 Cognition

The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge

and understanding through thought ,experience and
senses.
 Prior learning

People learn from their experiences and use previous

learning as the foundation for their existing
behaviour.
Ex: an employee facing a dilemma in choosing his
project will rely on past experience while taking
decision.
 Social learning theory

Also called as observational theory

Every one learns behaviour by observing with society
It is categorized into two as
Modelling and social cognition
 Modelling

The process in which the behaviours of others is

copied.
Human behaviour is mostly learned by observing
other’s behaviour.
 Process of modelling theory

Attention process
Retention process
Motor reproduction
Reinforcement process.
 Social cognition theory

Foundation of an individual growth originates from

the culture.
Culture is the tool of thinking and it enables
individual for intellectual adaptation.
 Significance of learning

Helps in controlling employee behaviour

Determines employee behaviour
Brings significant changes in training
Enhances growth in functional behaviour.
 Attitudes

Attitudes are predisposed feelings learned over

time that cause us to act, think, and feel a certain
way about events or other people.
Predisposed refers to a tendency to feel a certain
way.
Refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors
toward a particular object, person, thing, or event.
 Types of attitudes

 Positive,
 Negative,
 Neutral &
Sikken.
 Positive attitude

A positive attitude is a mindset that helps you see

and recognize opportunities. Positive attitude means
positive thinking. It is optimism and maintaining a
positive mindset
 Negative attitude

A negative attitude is a disposition, feeling, or

manner that is not constructive, cooperative, or
optimistic
 Neutral

The neutral attitude represents a certain

compromise or middle ground between the
participant and objective attitudes
Example ;Psychiatrist with their parents.
 Sikken

Sikken is one of the most complicated types of

attitudes.
It reflects a constant state of negativity and
aggressiveness.
It's difficult to navigate this type of attitude since it's
rooted in one's personality, and is very tough for
people to change their viewpoint substantially.
Ex: Self-Defeating Talk.
Negative Assumptions.
Negative Comparison with Others
 Components of Attitude

Affective Component: How the object, person,

issue, or event makes you feel
Cognitive Component: Your thoughts and beliefs
about the subject
Behavioral Component: How attitude influences
your behavior
 Affective component

The affective component refers to the emotional

reaction one has toward an attitude object. For
example, 'I feel scared when I think about or see a
snake.
 Cognitive Component

The cognitive component of attitude encompasses

our beliefs and thoughts about the object of our
attitude. It includes our knowledge about a particular
thing or topic
Assumptions like "All drugs are bad." An attitude
that is built largely on the cognitive component is
called a cognitive-based attitude.
 Behavioral Component

The behavioral component of attitude

encompasses the way we act toward the object of our
attitude. Crossing the street to avoid a dog is the
behavioral component of a negative or fearful
attitude toward dogs.
 VALUES

Defined as the collective conceptions of what is

considered good, desirable, and proper or bad,
undesirable, and improper in a culture.
Values are the principles or standards of behavior. It
is the core beliefs that guide and motivate attitudes
and actions. Values help us to decide whether
something is good or bad, right or wrong.
 Types of Values

Terminal Values.
Instrumental Values.
 Terminal Values.

Terminal values are the goals in life that are

desirable states of existence.
Examples of terminal values include family security,
freedom, and equality
 Instrumental Values.

specific methods of behavior. Instrumental values

are not an end goal, but rather provide the means by
which an end goal is accomplished
 Sources of values

Family
Friends & peers
Community or society
Media
Relatives
Organization