LEARNING AND MEMORY

KHYATI JAGANI
Introduction

 Learning is the most important characteristics of human beings

 Animals are born with “instincts”
 Human behavior is “learned” constantly and continuously
 Kids learn by observing and imitating
 Teenagers learn from friends and peers
 Adults learn from colleagues
 Learning is achieved through conditioning, experiences, observations,
cognitive efforts and as a result of practice over a period of time
Definition & Nature of Learning
 Behavior is an external event, it can be measured & therefore a cause-effect
relationship can be established
 It advocates a S-R (Stimulus – Response) schema.
 Stimulus can be defined as a detectable change in the environment that is
capable of arousing behavior from an organism.
 Behaviorism definition of learning: “A relatively permanent & observable
change in the behavior which occurs due to practice or experience.”
 Learning leads to changes in behavior, which are observable, measureable and
relatively permanent.
 The linkage between stimulus and response is established in a mechanistic
way and no cognitive or emotional processes are involved in the process of
learning
Definition & Nature of Learning

 This point of view was challenged by psychologists from cognitive school

 Cognitive theorists define learning as, “Any change in the behavior, thoughts,
or emotions of an organism which is relatively permanent and is caused by a
stimulus which may be external or internal. This change might occur due to
proactive over a period of time, experience and influence of society or due to
constant search for information.”
 It includes mental events in the ambit of memory and postulates the learning
schema as S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response)
 External stimuli – environment
 Internal stimuli – memory, thought, emotion, motivation, other cognitive
elements
Consumer Learning

 The process by which individuals acquire the purchase and consumption knowledge and
experience that they apply to future related behavior
 Consumer learning is a process: that is, it continually evolves and changes as a result of
newly acquired knowledge or from actual experience. This gives feedback for future
behavior.
 Marketers must teach consumers:
 where to buy
 how to use
 how to maintain
 how to dispose of products
 E.g. Sofy
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nix_3IRjuJk
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=baZivnRwPK8
 Surf excel – po rub po
Theories of Learning

Conditioning/Behaviorism theories Cognitive theories

• Behaviorisms tradition • Theories of social learning

• Based on observable behaviors • Learning based on mental
(responses) that occur as the result information processing
of exposure to stimuli • Often in response to problem solving
Conditioning Theories

• Learning occurs in the natural course of behavior

• Classical conditioning theory says that, “Individuals learn when stimulus and
response occurs together.”
• Operant conditioning theory says that, “Individuals learn in particular action
when the consequence of the action is positive/negative.”
Conditioning Theories

 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
 A behavioral learning theory according to which a stimulus is paired with another
stimulus that elicits a known response that serves to produce the same response when
used alone.
 Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
 Stimulus – any observable change in the energy of the environment that is able to
elicit response. E.g. sound of bell
 Response – behavioral reaction to the occurrence of stimulus. E.g. salivation
 Unconditioned stimulus – it is a stimulus that consistently and naturally evokes a
response. E.g. meat
 Unconditioned response – it is a response that occurs naturally in relation to the
unconditioned stimulus. E.g. salivation to meat
 Conditioned stimulus – it is a stimulus when presented does not bring any response
from the organism other than noticing it. E.g. ringing of bell, it started eliciting
response only after being paired with meat
 Conditioned response – it is a learned response that is evoked by conditioned
stimulus after being paired with unconditioned stimulus. E.g. response of salivation
after hearing bell
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
 In classical conditioning individuals learn to associate two stimuli due to
repeated pairing
 Experiment1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6AYofQchoM
 Experiment2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI&t=78s
Classical Conditioning

a. Simultaneous Conditioning:-
 Unconditioned stimulus & conditioned stimulus are presented simultaneously.
b. Delayed Conditioning:-
 Unconditioned stimulus is presented first & after some time delay, conditioned
stimulus is presented.
c. Trace Conditioning:-
 A type of delayed conditioning but here conditioned stimulus is presented after a
considerable delay.
d. Backward Conditioning:-
 Conditioned stimulus is presented first & after that unconditioned stimulus is
presented.
Application of Classical Conditioning
Theory
 Advertising
 Jingle
 Interior & Organization of Retail
 Sensory branding
Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus – John
Abraham
• Conditioned stimulus – product and
brand
• John Abraham looking fresh inspite of
doing a arduous physical activity
signifies freshness. This feeling of
freshness gets associated with the
brand and the product towards which
the eye travel a fraction of second
later
Factors of Classical Learning

1. Temporal contiguity & positioning of unconditioned stimulus – proximity in

time dimension
2. Predictive contingency – occurrence of US is dependent on CS
3. Number of repetitions – repetitions of US and CS
4. Level of motivation
5. Relevance & uniqueness of unconditional stimulus – US must be biologically or
symbolically relevant
6. Intensity of the stimulus
Classical Conditioning

 Peter England – Beginning of Good Things

 Priced at mid-level and positioned as
honest shirt
 For most new entrants in the job market,
this is the first brand. As they grow in
life, they may shift to a more luxurious
lifestyle and may be other premium
brands, but this brand of shirt remains in
their mind as beginning of one’s career,
earning and all good things
 The new positioning captures this highly
relevant and important feeling and as a
result the associative learning from the
ad is immediate and memorable
Stimulus Generalization & Stimulus Discrimination

Stimulus generalization is, “the ability to respond in a similar manner when

presented with a new stimulus that is similar to conditioned response, the
condition being that the new stimulus must be similar to the original one
initially presented at the time of learning.”

Stimulus discrimination is, “the ability to differentiate among different stimuli &
learn to respond only to one particular class of stimuli.”
Strategic Applications of Classical
Conditioning
 Repetition
 Increases the association between the conditioned and unconditioned
stimulus
 Slows the pace of forgetting
 Advertising wear out is a problem

 Stimulus generalization
 Having the same response to slightly different stimuli
 Helps “me-too” products to succeed
 Useful in product extensions

 Stimulus discrimination
 Selection of a specific stimulus from similar stimuli
 This discrimination is the basis of positioning which looks for unique ways to
fill needs
 Strategic Applications of Classical
Conditioning
 This emotional branding occurs through visual
by classical learning
 In the background of the visual, one can see
the still-to-be unpacked cartons that signifies
that family has just shifted to their new home
 On the top of the carton, one can also see
some potted plants in immaculate condition
that signify hassle free shifting
 Last element of visual are the three members
of the family – all smiling
 The visual becomes as unconditioned stimulus
that conveys hassle-free and joyous transfer to
one’s new home
 Just below the visual are two copy elements
(home loan and federal bank), that acts as
conditioned stimulus.
 Both these stimulus are placed together in an
ad
Other Examples of Classical Conditioning
 The Indian context is full of examples of how licensing is used by brands to
appeal to consumers.
 Parle had embossed Tom & Jerry on their Milk Shakti cream biscuits
 Hero cycles introduced Mickey Mouse brand for children
 Chhota bheem has 3000 SKUs covering many categories like shoes, school
merchandise and apparel.
 Myntra has licensing agreement with Disney
Theory of Operant Conditioning

 Also known as instrumental conditioning

 Principle of operant conditioning – the probability of a behavior recurring
is dependent on its consequences
 Therefore, a behavior that results in positive consequences is learned.
And a behavior that removes negative situation is learned.
 Edward L. Thorndike – law of effects; B.F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning
 A behavioral theory of learning based on a trial-and-error process, with habits
forced as the result of positive experiences (reinforcement) resulting from certain
responses or behaviors.
 The organism has to operate on the environment to produce
consequences that lead to learning. This change in the environment is
called reinforcement
Reinforcement

 Reinforcement is, “An event or stimulus in the environment that increases the
likelihood of the response that it is contingent upon.”
a. Positive reinforcement – when the occurrence of an event or stimulus
increases the likelihood of the response.
 It is desirable in nature. E.g. food pellet
b. Negative reinforcement – is an event or stimulus, the removal of which
increases the likelihood of response
 E.g. the floor of the cage gives mild shock when touched
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
Operant Conditioning

 The positive reinforcement in

this ad is ZERO MARGIN that the
retailer is charging on the eve of
the brand’s birthday
 A major grievance of the durable
purchasers is the excessive
margins charged by the retailers
 By providing the reinforcement
of zero margin, the brand is
conditioning the consumers to
purchase not only what they
need, but also prepone future
purchases
Operant Conditioning

 Negative reinforcement is used to

build brand equity and create
intention to purchase among the
targeted consumers
 It positions itself as a specialist
 Using Krack cream leads to the
removal of the obnoxious
condition of cracked heels
 To strengthen this claim, it
emphasizes the fact that the
cream contains seven natural
herbs very prominently on the
pack
Theory of Operant Conditioning

E.g. BBT
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk
Difference between Classical and
Operant Conditioning
 Respondent behavior is learnt through classical learning. This type of behavior is
completely under the control of the stimulus. The stimulus has to appear and the
response is automatic. If the bell rings the salivation is automatic.

 In operant conditioning, the stimulus does not exercise complete control on the
response. In this type of learning, the organism has to operate on the environment
for which it has to be motivated. Therefore, the control exercised by the stimulus on
the response is only partial and conditional. The pigeon had to be kept hungry to
motivate him to explore. It is the organism that has to respond first and for that it
has to be willing

 In classical conditioning, the response is elicited by the stimulus whereas in operant

conditioning it is dependent on organism
 Reinforcement Schedule
• Structure or pattern of reinforcement
• Continuous – all desired response are
rewarded
• Intermittent – only few desired responses are
rewarded
• Ratio – reinforcement is provide only after a
certain number of responses
• Fixed ratio – after every nth response
• Variable ratio – not fixed but varies from one
response to other
• Interval – reinforcement is dependent on the
passage of time
• Fixed interval – reinforcement is presented
after the lapse of a fixed period
• Variable interval – varies from one response
to another
• E.g. Starbucks – every 10th coffee is on us
• E.g. Big Bazaar – every Thursday heavy offers
Instrumental Conditioning

 It deals with the desirable reward a consumer experiences when s/he id given
a favourable response
 E.g. service provided at retail outlets (quick check-out) would reinforce consumer
to revisit a retail outlet
 Gamification makes routine actions into interactive experiences by adding
gaming elements. It has some degree of uncertainty, short and long-term
goals, feedback, competition that is not hostile and a digital platform

 Marketing Strategies:
 Loyalty Programs
 Pricing
 Cognitive Theories
 Cognition refers to mental processes involved in information processing such
as thinking, perceiving, remembering, planning and choosing.
 Morgan et al. (1998), Cognitive processes involve the selection of information,
modification of information according to pre-existing values and norms,
association and elaboration of the information, storage of the information in
the memory, and retrieval of information when needed.
 Holistic in nature
 Conditioning theory limitations
 Reductionist in nature
 Ignores cognitive process
 Gestalt Theory of Learning
• The word Gestalt refers to the way things are put together, formed or organized
• Gestalt is based on the principle that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts
• The rules according to which a field is organized into good gestalt are:
1. Similarity
2. Proximity
3. Closure
4. Simplicity
Theories of Social Learning

 According to McGregor (2009), Social refers to the context or the set-up in

which learning takes place. Social refers to the fact that this type of learning
takes place in interaction with others and the basic tools of learning are
imitation and modeling.
Bandura's Theory of Learning

 According to Bandura (1977), people not only learn from their own personal,
lived experience, but also from watching what others do, and what happens
to these people when they do it.
 Observation – It is watching somebody else with attention and with the
intention to retain the substance of the observation.
 Modeling – It is a pervasive process in which a person tries to be the same
kind of person (as the model) and is based on the process of identification.
Memory

 “Memory is the cognitive system for storing and retrieving information about
past experiences.
 Measures of Memory: Recall and Recognition
 Recall – A fact, an experience or an item from memory.
 Recognition – To identify a fact, or an experience or an item that has been
learned or experienced previously.
 Categorization of Memory

 Declarative memory – It the aspect of memory which

stores facts, experiences, and knowledge about the world.
It is factual knowledge that can be stated in words.
• Declarative memories are of two types
• Semantic – generalized knowledge and facts about the world that have not been experienced
• Episodic – it is memory of what has a time and place dimension because of our experiences

 Procedural – It contains ‘how to do’ a skill-based job and

is very difficult to convert into knowledge.
Memory
Memory storage systems

1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory

Figure 8.13
Memory storage systems

 Sensory Memory:
• Sensory memory is a storage system that retains the representation of sensory
inputs for a brief time.
• It is associated with process of transduction.

 Short-Term Memory:
• STM is also called as working memory.
• Information stays in STM for few moments before it is either transferred to long-
term memory or discarded.
Memory storage systems

 Long-Term Memory:
• It has the capacity to hold and retain information over a long period of time that in
some cases may be a lifetime.
• Information stored in LTM does not decay, and has unlimited capacity.
Marketing Strategy
 Ambush Marketing - Advertiser use this marketing strategy to associate with specific events and brands
without paying sponsorship fees. This allows the business to capitalize on these events or leverage the
brand equity of the other business, which has the potential effect of loweringthe value of the original
event.
 Alliance marketing - A joint venture is formed between two or more businesses to pool resources in an
effort to promote and sell products and services.
 Reverse marketing - In reverse marketing, the idea is to get the customer to seek out the business rather
than marketers seeking the customer. Dove Real Beauty
 Free Sample / Testers
• Guerrilla marketing - Grass root, untraditional, and low-budget methods that found involve creativity, big
crowds of people, and the element of surprise to market or promote a product, service, brand, event, or
new launch. Guerrilla marketing is the creating use of novel or unconventional methods in order to
boost sales or attract interest in a brand or business. These methods are often low- or no-cost and
involve the widespread use of more personal interactions or through viral social media messaging.
• Dirty sidewalks cleaned to show only your logo
• Public bus wrap
• Beer coaster postcard
 Contests
 Giveaways
Thank You