Anatomy & physiology

of cells
Chapter 3

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 Objectives
1. label the components, name a term that describes the cell.

2. Distinguish between passive and active transport processes.

3. Define the terms diffusion, osmosis, filtration and facilitated

diffusion, and give an example of each.

4. Define the terms active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

5. List a function(s) for each cellular component and/or organelle.

6. Describe the structure of each cellular organelle.

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INTRODUCTION
 The cell is the basic unit of structure and
function in living things. Cells vary in their
shape size, and arrangements but all cells have
similar components, each with a particular
function.
 Some of the 100 trillion of cells make up human
body.
 All human cell are microscopic in size, shape
and function.
 The diameter range from 7.5 micrometer (RBC)
to 150 mm (ovum).
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Introduction
- Cell is defined as the fundamental living unit of any
organism.

- Cell is important to produce energy for metabolism

(all chemical reactions within a cell)

- Cell can mutate (change genetically) as a result of

accidental changes in its genetic material (DNA).

- Cytology: the study of the structure and functions

of cells.

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Cell structure
1) THE CELL (PLASMA) MEMBRANE
 The cell membrane is a thin, dynamic
membrane that encloses the cell and
controls what enters and leaves the cell.

 Fluid Mosaic Model

composed of a double layer (bilayer) of
phospholipid molecules with many protein
molecules dispersed within it;
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Fluid Mosaic Model

a.The surfaces of the membrane are

"hydrophilic" due to the polar
phosphate heads;
b. The internal portion of the
membrane is "hydrophobic" due to the
non-polar fatty acid tails;
c. The membrane proteins also have
both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
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PLASMA MEMBRANE

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PLASMA MEMBRANE

hydrophillic phospha
head

hydrophobic
acid tails

• Chemical attractions are th

forces that hold membranes
together

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Function of plasma membrane

 Serves as boundary of the cell.

 Serve as markers that identify the
cells.
 Play significant role in transportation.
 Cell recognition proteins-allow cell to
recognize other cells.

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Membrane proteins

– Some membrane proteins have

carbohydrates attached to them, forming
glycoproteins that act as identification
markers
– Some membrane proteins are receptors
that react to specific chemicals,
sometimes permitting a process called
signal transduction

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  Ion channel
 Transporter
 Receptor
 Enzyme
 Cell Identity
marker
 Linker

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Cytoplasm
 Is a gel-like matrix of water, enzymes,
nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains
cell structures (organelles).

 Fluid around the organelles called cytosol.

 Most of the cells metabolic reactions occur

in the cytoplasm.
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2) Endoplasmic reticulum
 network of interconnected parallel membranes (maze), that
is continuous with the nuclear membrane;
2. Two types:
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
1. ER studded with ribosomes;
2. Function = protein synthesis and intraceluar
transportation of molecules ;

b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

lacks ribosomes;
1. Function = lipid & cholesterol synthesis and Stores
calcium.

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 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

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 3) Ribosomes
 Every cell contains thousand of ribosome's and
many of them attached to the RER.
 Each ribosome is nonmembranous structure,
made of two pieces large unit and small unit and
each subunit composed of rRNA.
 Function: protein synthesis
 Protein released from the ER are not mature,
need further processing in Golgi complex before
they are able to perform their function within or
outside the cell.
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 3) Golgi Apparatus

1. flattened membranous sacs (cisternae).

2. arranged in stacks ("stack of pancakes")
associated with many vesicles (membrane
bound sacs containing proteins);
2. Function = modification, packaging,
and transport of proteins;
3. Encloses digestive enyzymes into
membranes to form lysosomes.
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 4) Lysosomes

1. spherical membranous sacs containing

digestive enzymes;
2. "suicide sacs" which destroy anything the
cell no longer wants or needs.
3. Autolysis is the process by which worn cell
parts are digested by autophagy.

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Peroxisomes:

 1. membranous sacs containing

oxidase enzymes;
 2. Function = detoxification of
harmful or toxic substances (i.e.
alcohol, formaldehyde, oxygen free
radicals);
 H2O2 (peroxide) ----> water
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Mitochondria
 1. kidney-shaped
organelle whose inner
membrane is folded into
shelf-like partitions called
cristae;
 2. "Powerhouse" of
the cell = site of cellular
respiration where energy
is released from glucose.
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 NUCLEUS
the central core, control center or "brain" of the cell.

1. the largest organelle of the cell;

2. filled with nucleoplasm;

 Nuclear Membrane (or nuclear envelope) is a double

membrane that separates the contents of the nucleus from the
cytoplasm;

 At various point, these two membranes fuse = nuclear pore.

 The nuclear membrane is "selectively permeable"; pores serve

as sites where mRNA can pass out of the nucleus during protein
synthesis, and how ribosomes exit the nucleus.
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Nucleoli

 Nucleolus (s) = a spherical body within

the nucleus;

 composed of RNA and proteins;

 Function = synthesis of ribosomes.

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Cytoskeleton :
 The cytoskeleton
– Is a network of fibers extending
throughout the cytoplasm
– Fibers appear to support the endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, and “free”
ribosomes Microtubule

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The cytoskeleton

– Gives mechanical support to the cell

– Is involved in cell motility, which
utilizes motor proteins
– Rodlike pieces that provide support
and allow movement and mechanisms
that can move the cell or its parts

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 Components of cytoskeleton:
1) Microfilaments

 Solid rods of globular

proteins.
 Important component
of cytoskeleton which
offers support to cell
structure.
 Microfilaments can
slide past each other,
causing shortening of
the cell
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 Components of cytoskeleton:
2) Intermediate filaments

– Intermediate filaments are twisted protein

strands slightly thicker than microfilaments;
they form much of the supporting framework
in many types of cells

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 Components of cytoskeleton:
3) Microtubules
 Microtubules
– Shape the cell
– Guide movement of organelles (their function
is to move things around in the cell)
– Help separate the chromosome copies in
dividing cells

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 Components of cytoskeleton:
4) Microtubules

 Centrosomes and Centrioles

 The centrosome
– An area of the cytoplasm near the nucleus
that coordinates the building and breaking of
microtubules in the cell
– Its considered to be a “microtubule-organizing
center”
– Plays an important role during cell division
– Contains a pair of centrioles
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Components of cytoskeleton:

Centrioles
 Self-replicating
 Made of bundles of
microtubules.
 Help in organizing cell
division.

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 Cell Membrane Surface Modifications

1. Cilia / Cilium

a. short, hair-like cellular extensions (eyelashes);

b. help move substances through passageways;
c. located in lining of respiratory tract & fallopian tube.

2. Flagella
a. tail-like projection;
b. only one per cell in humans;
c. aids in cell locomotion;
d. sperm cell.
3. Microvilli:
a. small finger-like extensions of the external surface of the cell membrane;
b. Function
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c. located in the lining of the digestive tract.
Membrane Junctions

 Tight junction – impermeable junction that encircles

the cell & prevents leakage
– Blood brain barrier
- Skin
 Desmosome – anchoring junction scattered along
the sides of cells. Prevents tissues from fraying
Stomach, uterus , bladder
 Gap junction – allows chemical substances to pass
between cells
 Heart

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 Desmosome
Tight Junction

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 Gap Junction

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Transport Across the Plasma Membrane

– 2 types

– Passive transport

– Active Transport

require no ATP( energy)

Substances move High to low conc.
Examples include
 Simple diffusion
 Osmosis
 facilitated diffusion
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 filtration
 Simple diffusion

 random mixing of
particles in solution
 substances move
down concentration
gradient-
 particles eventually
become evenly
distributed -
Equilibrium reached
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Simple diffusion

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Facilitated Diffusion
 Diffusion Through channel proteins or
transport proteins
 allow passage of
– small inorganic ions – Na+ , K+, Ca+2
– Glucose, water soluble vitamins(B,C)
generally slower than diffusion across lipid
portion
 Depends upon the number of
transporters available
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Diffusion Through the Plasma Membrane

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Factors affecting the rate
of diffusion
 Steepness of the concentration
gradient
 Temperature
 Mass of the diffusing substance
 Surface area
 Diffusion distance

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Osmosis

 passive process
 diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane
 from Hi. Conc. of WATER ( low solute)
to
lower concentration of WATER( Hi.
solute)
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Membrane Permeability on Diffusion and
Osmosis

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Tonicity
Describes how a solution affects cell volume
 hypertonic
– solution with more solutes
– Blood cells shrink and crenate
 hypotonic
– solution with less solutes
– Blood cells swell up and hemolyse
 isotonic
– both solutions have similar concentrations of solutes.
– Cell size is unchanged

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 Active transport - movement of a
substance from a lower concentration
to a higher concentration using a
carrier and energy

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 solutes moving against concentration
gradient-Uses carrier proteins
– can be driven by ATP use or via energy
stored in ionic concentration
Types :
– Primary active transport
– Secondary active transport
– Transport in vesicles

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Primary active transport
uses ATP and transporter proteins sodium
potassium pump

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Transport in Vesicles

 A form of active transport.

 Transport of large particles across the

plasma membrane

 Types :
1. Endocytosis
2. Exocytocysis
3.Transcytosis
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Phagocytosis

 only a few body cells are capable

 Ex. WBC (macrophages , neutrophils)
 particle binds to plasma membrane
 pseudopods extend and surround
particle forming phagosome
 phagosome fuses with lysosomes
which destroy invader
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Phagocytosis

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Pinocytosis
 Also called cellular drinking
 most body cells carry out process
– especially absorptive cells in intestines
and kidneys
 tiny droplets of extracellular fluid
taken into cell
 lysosomes fuse and degrade particles
into smaller useable particles
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Pinocytosis

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Exocytosis
 releases materials form a cell
 all cells carry out process
 Ex. i. secretory cells
 release digestive enzymes, hormones, mucus, or other
secretions
– Ii. nerve cells
 release neurotransmitters
 vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and
release contents into extracellular fluid

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Exocytosis

 vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and

then ruptures; used in hormone and
neurotransmitter release

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Exocytosis -

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