Macromechanical behavior of

a laminate
Classical lamination theory
- Hypothesis
- Variations of stress and deformation in the laminate
- Force and moment resultant

Special cases of laminate stiffness

- Single-ply laminates
- Symmetric laminates
- Antisymmetric laminates
- Nonsymmetric laminates
 Definition of laminate

• Laminate: Two or more laminae stacked together (in the thickness z

direction) at various orientations thus acting as a single structural element
 Classical lamination theory

• The classical lamination theory allows, starting from the elastic constants of each
lamina, to calculate the mechanical properties of the whole laminate.
• The fiber direction of each lamina is oriented in order to obtain a laminate able to
withstand loads in various directions depending on the applied stresses
• Hypothesis:
• The laminate is made with laminae perfectly bonded to each other.
• The bonding surfaces are infinitely thin and not deformable in shear, i.e., the
strains are continuous between a lamina and the other and there is no relative
slippage of a lamina relative to each other
• Plane stress state
• Thin plates with small deflections (the laminate is thin with two dimensions >>
of the others)
• z=xz=yz=0 Kirchoff’s hypothesis: a line normal to the median plane (ABCD)
remains perpendicular to it (xz=yz=0) and with the same length (z=0) due to
extensions and bending of the laminate
• The laminate acts as a flat plate whose special mechanical properties are defined
by the properties of the constituent laminae. (It behaves like a single layer
consisting of a material characterized by “special” properties).
 Kirchoff’s hypothesis

• If the laminate is thin, a line AD originally straight and perpendicular to the

middle surface of the laminate, is assumed to remain straight and perpendicular
to the middle surface when the laminate is extended and bent.
x
u0
z A
y,v A
A /2 /2
B B
D 
D D 
z,w x,u Undeformed cross section Deformed cross section

Geometry of deformation in the x-z plane

 Kirchoff’s hypothesis

• The hypothesis allows to assume that z = xz = yz = 0

• For small strains
•
• The displacement of a point C at zc :
dx
A
• Where u0=displacement in the x-direction of a point B,
 dw0
from the undeformed to the deformed middle surface
• zcb=displacement of C from B due to the rotation of AD B
(always perpendicular to the middle surface). The zC 
rotation is such that the face is always perpendicular to C
the midplane, represented by the elastic curve w 0(x)

• And being D

Eq. 22)
• More in general

• And in the y direction:

Eq. 23)
 Kirchoff’s hypothesis
• For small strains, the strains can be written as
•
• by definition, the strains of the middle plane are:
•
• And the curvature of the middle plane:
•
• Therefore, Strains and curvatures have been decoupled. The deformation can be
written as:
Eq. 24)
• With
Eq. 25) and eq. 26)
 Laminae stresses

• The stresses in the kth layer can be expressed in terms of the laminate middle
surface strains and curvatures as:
Eq. 27)
• The strain varies linearly along z (thickness)
• The stresses are not linear because are different for each ply of the laminate
• The different plies in a laminate can be loaded with different values: some plies
can reach the failure before other plies
 Effect of loading conditions- pure tension

• Pure tension
• Isotropic z z

𝜎 0= 𝐸 𝜀 0

0 0  0 0 

• Laminate 0/90/90/0

0 E1 E 1 0
90 E2 𝜎 𝑘=𝐸 𝑘 𝜀0 E 2 0
90 E2 E 2 0
0 E1 E 2 0
0 0  E 0 
 Effect of loading conditions: pure bending
z 2 z 2
• Pure bending 𝜕 𝑤 𝜕 𝑤
𝜀=𝑧 2
𝜎 =𝐸 𝑧 2
• Isotropic 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Neutral axis

0  0 
z
90 E2
• Laminate 90/0/0/90 0 E1
0 E1 Neutral axis
90 E2
0  E 0 
z
0 E1
• Laminate 0/90/90/0 90 E2 Neutral axis
90 E2
0 E1
0  E 0 
 Effect of loading conditions: tension and bending
• Isotropic z z
2
𝜕 𝑤 2
𝜀=𝜀 0 + 𝑧 𝜕 𝑤
𝜕𝑥
2 𝜎 =𝐸 𝜀 0 + 𝐸𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥
Neutral axis
0  0 
z
90 E1
• Laminate 90/0/0/90 0 E2
0 E2
90 Neutral axis E1
0  E 
z
0 E1
90 E2
• Laminate 0/90/90/0 Neutral axis
90 E2
0 E1
0  E 0 
 Effect of loading conditions: tension and bending
z z
• Isotropic
2
𝜕 𝑤 2
𝜀=𝜀 0 + 𝑧 𝜕 𝑤
𝜕𝑥
2 𝜎 =𝐸 𝜀 0 + 𝐸𝑧 2
𝜕𝑥
Neutral axis
0  0 

z
1
2
• Arbitrary laminate
3 Neutral axis
4
0  E 0 
laminate
 Resultant forces and moments on a laminate

• The resultant forces and moments (per unit width) acting on a laminate are
obtained by integration of the stresses in each layer or lamina trough the laminate
thickness t
• N= force per unit width (b: width of the laminate) [N/m]

• M= Moment per unit width (b) [N]

• Mx and My: bending moments
• Mxy: torque moment

My Myx
y y
Mx
Ny Nyx x Mxy x
Nxy Nx
z z
In-plane forces on a flat laminate Moments on a flat laminate
 Resultants forces and moments on a laminate

• In vectorial notation
Eq. 28)
Eq. 29)
• The integrals are extended to the thickness of each layer and the sum to all layers

N
t/2 zN
zN-1 z k tk
k
zk-1
Middle plane z3 t
3 z2
2 z1 -t/2

1 z0
 Resultants forces and moments on a laminate
• Substituting eq. 27) into eq. 28) and eq. 29):

The stiffnesses are constant with thickness in any ply (or lamina) and then they can
go outside the integration (but not outside the sum) over each ply.
 Laminate stiffnesses

• The strains 0 and k are referred to the middle plane and are not function of z
and then can go outside the integration and the sum.
Eq. 30)
Eq. 31)
• Therefore, it is possible to define:

• Extensional stiffness Eq. 32)

• Coupling stiffness eq. 33)

• Flexural stiffness eq. 34)

 Laminate stiffness matrix

• According to the definitions

Eq. 35)

Eq. 36)
• Bij0 implies coupling between bending and extension, i.e. a tension determines
bending and torsion, and viceversa.
• Thus, it is impossible to perform a tensile test on a laminate that has B ij terms
without at the same time a bending and/or a twisting of the laminate.
 Physical interpretation

Shear-extension coupling
Bending-extension coupling
Bending-torsion coupling
 Physical interpretation
xy
• A16 and A26 involve in-plane
deformations
y x

x
z Nx

• D16 and D26 involve torsion due to

My
bending kxy

ky
x

• B terms involve out of plane

deformation (bending and kxy
torsion) due to in plane stress and
vice-versa ky
Nx
 Inverse relationships
• Some times, it is more useful to express the formula in terms of compliances
• In compact form:

Multiplying the first equation by and substituting:

defining

And ;

And

Setting
And
 Inverse relationships

• Which allows to write:

• Eq. 37)
• Being
 Constitutive equation of laminate and stiffness matrices

[A] = extensional stiffness matrix [N/m]: relationship between the resultant in-
plane forces and the in-plane strains.

[B] = coupling stiffness matrix [N]: coupling the normal forces and moments to
midplane curvatures and midplane strains, respectively

[D] = bending stiffness matrix [Nm]: relationship between resultant bending

moments and mid plane curvatures.
 Terms of the A matrix

If the thickness of the plies is the same, h0

for two equidistant plies:
zj zj-1
(zi=zj-1 in the figure)
zi-1 zi

h0
 Terms of the B matrix

Some simplification is possible for the matrix B terms:

If the thickness of the plies is the same, for two equidistant plies:
(zi=zj-1 in the figure):

h0 𝑧 ❑𝑗

zj zj-1

zi-1 zi

h0 𝑧❑
𝑖
 Terms of the D matrix
Some simplification for the matrix D terms:

If the thickness of the plies is the same, for two equidistant plies:
(zi=zj-1 in the figure) then

h0
zj zj-1
zi-1 zi
h0
 Some simplifications of the laminate stiffness matrix

Eq. 39)

Eq. 40)

Eq. 41)

Aij does not depend on the ply stacking

Bij and Dij depend on the ply stacking sequence
 Stiffness for a single isotropic ply
• Elastic constants of the material: E and 
• The stiffnesses are given as:
•
• With and
• Yielding:

• And
•
•
• In addition
• The coupling effects between bending and extension are eliminated
• The resulting forces are only dependent on the linear deformation of the midplane and the
moments on its curvature
 Stiffness for a single isotropic ply

• In matrix form:
 Stiffness for a single specially orthotropic ply

There is alignment between the principal reference system and the main load
reference system
since =0Q16=Q26=0 for each laminate
Even in this case, and  The coupling effects between bending and extension
are eliminated
The coefficients of the A and D matrices are:

Which gives:
and
 Stiffness of a single generally orthotropic ply

• There is an angle  between the principal axis of the material and the chosen
reference.

• Then the coefficients are:

The coupling effects between bending and extension are eliminated

The matrices [A] and [D] are full (A16 and A260, D16 and D26 0)
There is no coupling between bending and extension but the normal stresses are
function of shear deformations and vice versa
The bending moments depend on kxy and the torque moments on kx and ky.
 stiffness of a single anisotropic ply

• The same relationships obtained for the generally orthotropic laminate holds.
However the stiffnesses are calculated starting from 6 independent elastic
constants and not from 4.

• The coupling effects between bending and extension are eliminated

 Typical lamina and laminate
• Single ply
– Isotropic
– Specially orthotropic
– Generally orthotropic
– Anisotropic
• laminate
– symmetric
– antisymmetric
– non symmetric S: symmetric; k=Kevlar; C=carbon; G=glass
Type of laminate Stacking sequence
unidirectional [0°/0°/0°/0°/0°/0°]=[0°6]
Cross-ply symmetric [0°/90°/90°/0°]=[0°/90°]S
Angle-ply symmetric [45°/-45°/-45°/45°]=[45°/-45°]S=[+45°]S
Angle-ply antisymmetric [30°/-30°/+30°/-30°/30°/-30°/30°/-30°]=[30°/-30°]4=[+30°]4
Quasi isotropic [0°/+45°/45°/90°]
Symmetric quasi isotropic [0°/+45°/-45°/90/90°/-45/45°/90°]=[0°/+45°/90]S
Multidirectional [0°/45°/30°/-30°/45°]
Hybrid [0k/0k/45c/-45c/90g/-45c/45c/0k/0k]=[02k/+45c/90g]S
 Typical lamina and laminate

• Unidirectional laminate: the fiber orientation angles

are the same in all laminas. For example, in
unidirectional 0°laminates, =0° in all laminas.

• Cross-ply laminate: the fiber orientation angles in

alternate plies are /0/90/0/90

• Angle-ply laminate: the fiber orientation angles in

alternate plies are //-//-/ when  0° or 90°

• Quasi-isotropic laminate: produced using at least

three different ply orientations, all with equal angles
between them. It exhibits quasi-isotropic extensional
stiffness properties.
 Typical lamina and laminate

Cross ply laminates:

They consist of specially orthotropic layers stuck on each other with principal
material directions alternating at 0° and 90°
Cross ply ratio: ratio of the total thickness of plies oriented at 0°(odd) to the
total thickness of plies oriented at 90°(even)

0
0 90
90 0
0 90
90 0
0 90
90 0
 Typical lamina and laminate

Angle ply laminates:

They consist of orthotropic layers stuck on each other with principal material
directions alternating at +°and -°
Nb: with an even number of plies they are antisymmetric
Nb: with an odd number of plies they are symmetric

+
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
+
 Symmetric laminates
• Symmetric laminate: the ply orientation is symmetrical about the center line of the
laminate; that is, for each ply above the midplane, there is an identical ply (in material,
thickness, and fiber orientation angle) at an equal distance below the midplane   (z)=
 (-z)
• Symmetric laminates are preferred in order to limit the component distortion due both to
the thermal contractions caused by the curing or consolidation cycle and to the coupling of
deformations as a consequence of external loads.
• Even number of plies
Plane of symmetry

90° 0° 0°
30° 30° 0° 0° 90°
[90/02/30]S
• Odd number of plies: The bar over 0 indicates that the plane of symmetry passes midway
through the thickness of the 0° ply Plane of symmetry

90° 0° 0° 30° 0° 30° 0° 0° 90°

[90/02/30/]S
 Laminate stacking sequence and notation
+45 0 0
90 0 +45
[+45/90/-45]S [06]T [0/+45]S
-45 0 -45
-45 0 -45
90 0 +45
+45 0 0
"S" subscript is for symmetric
"T" subscript is for total
0 +45
+45
90 -45
-45
0 0
90
90 +45 [(+45/0)3]T
0 [+45/90/0/]S [(0/90)2/]S
0 -45
90
90 0
0
0 +45
90
90 -45
-45
0 0
45
 Laminates

Symmetric and balanced laminate: /- /- /  h0 +

z1
[B]=0 The laminae must have the same thickness z1
h0 and same distance z from the midplane and
h0 +
must be of the same material and orientation 
Balanced antysimmetric laminate: A16=A26=0
h0 +
Respect to the midplane, the laminae have the same z1
thickness t0 and orientation +, but can be at z2
difference distance e.g. [0/+30/-30/+30/-30/0]
h0 -
Antisymmetric laminate /-//-
The laminae must have the same thickness h0 and
same distance z from the midplane, must be of the h0 +
same material and have orientation - z1
D16=D26=0 and A16=A26=0 B11 e B120 z1
Non symmetric laminate: there is no symmetry or h0 -
antisymmetry. Ex: 0/0/0/90/90/90 and 0///90.
 Symmetric laminates
• Material, angle and thickness of the layers are the same above and below the mid-plane
• For each ply above the midplane there is an identical ply (for material orientation,
thickness and distance from the midplane) below the midplane.

symmetric
𝑄𝑖𝑗 ( 𝜃 ) [ 2 h0 𝑧 𝑗 ] h0 +
z1
-30° h3 Contribution
to the B
matrix z1
60° h2
−𝑄 𝑖𝑗 ( 𝜃 ) [ 2h 0 𝑧 𝑖 ] h0 +
45° h1

45° h1
Being the sum of the two terms is null
60° h2

-30° h3
 Symmetric laminates

Under such conditions, the equations for the general case are
simplified with
Bij=0 The coupling effects between bending and extension are
eliminated

[A] and [D] are full or partially full

Since Bij=0, symmetric laminates are the most used laminates
Symmetric laminates do not have the tendency to twist from the
thermal contractions during cooling.
 Symmetric laminates with generally orthotropic plies

For the symmetry Bij=0 (with the same thickness) +30° h3

A160 A260 D160 D260
-60° h2

15° h1

-60° h2

30° h3

Layer Material properties orientation thickness

Q11 Q12 Q22 Q16 Q26 Q66
1 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 +30 H0
2 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 -60 2h0
3 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 +15 4h0
4 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 -60 2h0
5 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 +30 H0
Symmetric laminate with five generally orthotropic layers
 Regular symmetric angle ply laminates
Lamina are stacked in sequence +/-
Symmetry requires that the number of ply is odd +30°
Bij=0 (with the same thickness) -30° h
A160 A260 D160 D260
+30°

-30° h
+30°

Layer Material properties orientation thickness

Q11 Q12 Q22 Q16 Q26 Q66
1 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 +30 H0
2 F1 F2 F3 -F4 -F5 F6 -30 H0
3 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 +30 H0
4 F1 F2 F3 -F4 -F5 F6 -30 H0
5 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 +30 H0
 Regular symmetric angle ply laminates
However,
Therefore, in the sum over k, only the odd
term contributes to A16, A26 Contribution
Therefore, to A16, A26, decrease for an to the A
matrix
increasing ply number N (N  3) for a
𝑄16 ( 𝜃 ) h0 h0 +
constant value of t
−𝑄 16 ( 𝜃 ) h0 h0 -
In addition, , (they can go out of the sum)
+
therefore:

Odd term
 Regular symmetric angle ply laminates
Starting from the definition of D:

When calculating account for the fact that are independent for the value of k

Which yields:
 Regular symmetric angle ply laminates
For the terms 16 and 26, starting from the definition of D: Odd term

+
Consider each couple of plies, such that -
K=6
+
Being -
K=4
+
-
K=2
+
 Regular symmetric angle ply laminates

The first term inside the sum is null (for each positive there is one negative)

The positive sign holds if the odd term is +

The negative sign holds if the odd term is -
 Elastic properties of a symmetric laminate with general
orthotropic plies or angle ply
• Starting with the consideration that B ij=0, Inversion of the A matrix yields the matrix A’

• The coefficient A11’ is:

• And being

Eq. 42)
• Analogously for Ey (the matrix determinant does not change and the term A 22’ is
considered):
Eq. 43)
• And for Gxy (the matrix determinant does not change and the term A 66’ is considered):
Eq. 44)
 Elastic properties of a symmetric laminate with general
orthotropic plies or angle ply
• If a force is applied along the x direction:’

Eq. 45)
And analogously:
Eq. 46)
 Symmetric laminates with isotropic plies
• In addition to , it is also Layer Material properties thickness
• ==
1 E1, 1 H0
• decoupling between bending
and extension 2 E2, 2 2h0
• decoupling between tension and 3 E3, 3 3h0
shear 4 E3, 3 3h0
5 E2, 2 2h0
6 E1, 1 h0
Symmetric laminate with six multiple
isotropic layers
E1, 1, h

E2, 2, h

E1, 1, h
Symmetric laminates with “specially orthotropic plies”- cross-ply

• If the laminate is made with Layer Material properties thickness

laminae oriented at 0 ° and 90 ° Q11 Q12 Q22 Q66
with respect to the axis of the
1 F1 F2 F3 F4 H0
laminate and is symmetric
(laminae of the same thickness) 2 F3 F2 F1 F4 2h0
• Bij = 0 and A16=A26=D16=D26=0 3 F1 F2 F3 F4 4h0
(because ) 4 F3 F2 F1 F4 3h0
5 F1 F2 F3 F4 2h0
Symmetric laminate with five specially
orthotropic layers
 Elastic properties of a symmetric cross ply laminate

• In this case, Starting with the consideration that Bij=0, A16=A26=D16=D26=0:

• It is possible to obtain a simple form for the deformation, as:

 Elastic properties of a symmetric cross ply laminate

• For example, applying a stress in the x direction only, and being N x/t=x:

• And therefore
• Eq. 47)
• Analogously, applying a tress in the y direction only:
• Eq. 48)
• And a pure shear:
• Eq. 49)
• Eq. 47, 48 and 49 are obtained from the homologues 42-46 by setting A 16=A26=0
 Elastic properties of a symmetric angle ply laminate- high
number of plies
• In this case:

• And if the number of plies is sufficiently high, 0

• Remembering that:
• ,,,
• It is possible to obtain:
• ;;;;
• Eq. 50)
 Balanced laminates

They consist of an even number of adjacent plies with angles of the principal axis of
the material of opposite sign (+ and -) with respect to the midplane of the
laminate
For each ply above the midplane with an orientation angle , there is a ply below the
midplane with the same thickness and orientation angle - , no matter what is the
distance from the midplane
30° t3

60° t2

-45° t1

-30° t3

45° t1

-60° t2
 Balanced laminates

Remembering that
A16=A26=0
Decoupling of normal stress and shear strain

𝑄16 ( 𝜃 ) h0
h0 +
z1 Contribution
to the A16 and
z2
A26
h0 - −𝑄 16 ( 𝜃 ) h0
 Antisymmetric balanced laminate
-45° h3
In the case that the distance from the midplane of the layers
at an angle +  is also the same, also
30° h2
• For the same reason D26=0 h1
90°
• However Bij  0
h1
𝑄16 ( 𝜃 ) [ h 0 +3 h0 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑘− 1 ]
3
h0 +
0°

Contribution z1
-30° h2
to D16 , D26 z1
−𝑄 16 ( 𝜃 ) [ h 03 +3 h 0 𝑧 𝑘 𝑧 𝑘 −1 ] h0 - 45° h3
Layer Material properties angle thickness
Q11 Q12 Q22 Q16 Q26 Q66
1 F1 F2 F3 -F4 -F5 F6 -45 h0
2 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 G6 30 2h0
3 H3 H2 H1 H4 H5 H6 90 3h0
4 H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 0 3h0
5 G1 G2 G3 -G4 -G5 G6 -30 2h0
6 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 45 h0
 Antisymmetric laminates cross-ply
Since antisymmetric and balanced: A16=A26=D16=D26=0
But
and all other Bij=0 ().

0° h3 Layer Material properties orientation thickness

90° h2 Q11 Q12 Q22 Q66

1 F1 F2 F3 F4 0 h0
90° h1
2 F3 F2 F1 F4 90 3h0

0° h1 3 F3 F2 F1 F4 90 2h0
4 F1 F2 F3 F4 0 2h0
0° h2
5 F1 F2 F3 F4 0 3h0

90° h3 6 F3 F2 F1 F4 90 h0
 Antisymmetric laminates cross-ply
• Therefore, under these conditions,

• Therefore, for example:

• But
•  no shear due to normal loads or torsion
• no torsion due to normal loads or shear
 Antisymmetric laminates cross-ply
The contribution of the 4 plies reported in the figure (from the bottom to the top) to
the B11 term is:

Yields:

Obviously

With increasing N, B11 , B22  0.

Q11
Q22
Z+h0 z Z+2h0

-(Z+2h0)
Q11
Q22
 Antisymmetric laminates angle-ply
In this case, odd number of plies -30° h3
B11= B22=B66=0 B16  0 B26  0
30° h2

-30° h1
There are normal stress due to torsional
deformations
30° h1
There is torsion due to extensional
deformations
-30° h2

30° h3

𝑄11 ( 𝜃 ) h 0 [ 𝑧 𝑘+ 𝑧 𝑘 −h 0 ] h0 +
Contribution to the B z1
matrix z1
−𝑄 11 ( 𝜃 ) [ h02 +2 h 0 𝑧 1 ] h0 -
 Antisymmetric laminates angle-ply
Further simplification arises from the fact that :
The contribution of the two adjacent plies to B 16 is:

Therefore, considering each couple of plies as a single ply the sum +

over k gives: -
zK zk-1 zK+1
Which decreases with increasing N. the same can be shown for B 26
Based on the fact that , (they can go out of the sum)
Followign the same arguments used for symmetric angle ply:
 Non symmetric laminates consisting of isotropic plies

The only available simplification is:

A16= A26=D16= D26=B16= B26=0 (the corresponding Q terms are null)
The asymmetric arrangement of isotropic layers of different thickness t k produces a
coupling between bending and normal stresses.
The coupling is due to the heterogeneity of the laminate, not to the orthotropy of
the plies, i.e. it is due to a combination of both geometric and material properties.
 summary
laminate Main Subclasses constraint As N
property increases
None A16=0
A26=0
Isotropic plies
D16=0
D26=0
Generally orthotropic None
plies
Odd A160
symmetric B=0 number A260
Angle ply
D160
D260
Odd A16=0
Specially orthotropic number A26=0
plies (cross ply) D16=0
D26=0
 summary
laminate Main Subclasses constraint As N
property increases
balanced A16=0
A26=0
Even B11=0 B160
number B22=0 B260
A16=0 Angle ply
B12=0
A26=0 B66=0
Anti-
D16=0
symmetric Even B16=0 B110
D26=0
Specially orthotropic number B26=0 B220
plies (cross ply) B66=0
B22=-B11
 Dawson, C., et al., Nature (1997) 390, 668

Non simmetric laminates ……in nature

A sketch of actuation of
branches in a pine
cone upon (a) wetting
and (c) drying

A sketch of actuation of branches in a pine cone upon (a) drying and (b) wetting. Each
branch can be viewed as a bilayer structure (c,d), made of two unidirectional composite
laminate at 0 and 90°. Each branch consists of two types of tissues, one consisting of
cells in which the cellulose microfibrils are aligned along the length of the scale and the
other in which they are perpendicular. The swelling/shrinking direction in each layer is
constrained by the orientation of the stiff cellulose microfibrils in the adjacent layer. The
bottom layer (blue) upon shrinking will contract along the length of the branch however,
the stiff upper layer will not contract, thus causing the pine cone to open
 Quasi-isotropic laminates

These laminates have quasi-isotropic

extensional stiffness properties N=3
The laminate should have more than two =/3
layers.
All layers should have identical stiffness
matrices and thicknesses.
The difference in orientation angle of two
adjacent layers must be equal. Thus, the N=4
angle between two adjacent layers should be =/4
/N where N is total number of layers in the
composite plate.
It is intuitive that:
A11=A22
N=5
A66=(A11-A12)/2 =/5
A16=A26=0
 Quasi-isotropic laminates

Examples:
[0,+45, 90, -45]s  [0/+45/90/-45/- N=3
45/90/+45/0] (8 plies) =/3

[0,+45,90]s  [0/+45/-45/90/90/-45/+45/0] (8
plies; very commonly used!)
[0, +60]s  [0/+60/-60/-60/+60/0] (6 plies and
thinner than the formers) N=4
However, the Bij and Dij depend on the =/4
orientation of the coordinate axis of the
laminate.
The laminate can have bending-extension
coupling as well as different bending
response as the laminate is rotated in plane N=5
=/5
Stiffness and strenght of a short fiber composite with
random fiber orientation

In analogy with quasi isotropic

laminates, a short fiber composite with
random fiber orientation can be
considered as a quasi-isotropic laminate
with random orientation of many
unidirectional laminae.

The macromechanics of the laminates is

used to obtain a typical result of
micromechanics !
 Coefficients of thermal expansion

For an unidirectional lamina, the coefficients of thermal expansion at 0°and 90° are
a11 and a22 , respectively. Moreover, a11 < a22
They can be obtained from the coefficient of longitudinal and radial thermal
expansion of the fibers, aFL and aFR (considered anisotropic) and am of the
matrix.
Generally am >> af

Eq. 42)
Eq. 43)
If the fibers form an angle q with the x direction, the coefficients ax and ay can be
defined as a function of a11 and a22 .
eq. 44) M 22

11

F

0 F 1
 Thermoelastic analysis

Thermal strains are due to free expansions (or contractions) caused by temperature
variations.
Thermal loads appear due to restrictions imposed by various layers against their
free thermal expansion.
In many applications involving polymer matrix composites, moisture can also
influence the laminate strains owing to volumetric expansion (swelling) or
contraction of the matrix caused by moisture absorption or desorption. In such
cases, also the hygroscopic strains should be taken into account.

Even if no external loads are applied, that is, if [ N] =[ M]=[0], there may be
midplane strains and curvatures due to thermal effects, which in turn will create
thermal stresses in various laminas.
When a composite laminate is cooled from the curing temperature to room
temperature, significant residual stresses may develop owing to the thermal
mismatch of various laminas. In some cases, these curing stresses may be
sufficiently high to cause intralaminar cracks. Therefore, it may be prudent to
consider them in the analysis of composite laminates
 Thermoelastic analysis

• Usually, laminates matrix are cured at temperatures which are different (higher)
than the service temperature of the composite
• During cooling thermal stresses arise, due to the different CTE of the laminae in
the different directions
• Starting from the definition of the strain:
• Eq. 45) i,j=1,2,….,6
• Sum of the mechanical and thermal strain.
• Inversion
• Eq. 46)
• Plane stress of orthotropic lamina in principal material coordinates:
• Eq. 47)
• Note that the coefficients of thermal expansion affect only extensional
strains not the shear strains
 Thermoelastic analysis

• However, in an arbitrary Cartesian coordinate system rotation yields:

• Rotation for each layer:
Eq. 48)
• The CTE also influence the shear strain
• Equivalently
 Thermoelastic analysis
• Integration over the thickness:
Eq. 49)

• And defining and

• Yields
Eq. 50)
• And for the moments
Eq. 51)
 Thermal curvatures

• Consider a [90/0] laminate cooled from the curing temperature to the room
temperature T.
• T-300 carbon fiber/ epoxy matrix
• 11=-0.5*10-6 K-1
• 22=12*10-6 K-1
• T thickness of each ply (total thickness 2t)
• Stiffness matrices:

• From the defintions:

 Thermal curvatures

• And therefore:

• Thermal normal force are given ss:

• And rememberign that = and =12*10 -6 K-1

 Thermal curvatures
• And remembering that = and =12*10 -6 K-1,

• The moments are:

 Thermal curvatures
• Now, being:
• And
• However, no mechanical stress or moment in applied, and therefore:

• And substitution into eq. 38) and eq. 39) yields:

 Thermal curvatures
• In the present example:
Stiffn
ess
matric inver
es se
A 142850 4580 0 A-1 7.01E-06 -2.25E-07 0.00E+00 B*A-1 -4.39E-01 1.41E-02 0.00E+00 D1 4.97E-05 -1.60E-06 0.00E+00
4580 142850 0 -2.25E-07 7.01E-06 0.00E+00 -1.41E-02 4.39E-01 0.00E+00 -1.60E-06 4.97E-05 0.00E+00
0 0 6508 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 1.54E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 4.61E-04
B -62605 0 0 B-1 -1.60E-05 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 B*A-1*B 2.75E+04 8.81E+02 0.00E+00 D1*B -3.11E+00 -1.00E-01 0.00E+00
0 62605 0 0.00E+00 1.60E-05 0.00E+00 8.81E+02 2.75E+04 0.00E+00 1.00E-01 3.11E+00 0.00E+00
0 0 0 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
D 47620 1530 0 D-1 2.10E-05 -6.75E-07 0.00E+00 D* 2.02E+04 6.49E+02 0.00E+00 C1 2.18E-05 3.49E-09 0.00E+00
1530 47620 0 -6.75E-07 2.10E-05 0.00E+00 6.49E+02 2.02E+04 0.00E+00 -3.49E-09 -2.18E-05 0.00E+00
0 0 2170 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 4.61E-04 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 2.17E+03 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00

• And finally
 Residual stresses of a symmetric cross-ply
• Calculating the residual stresses generated because of cooling from curing temperatures
• A [0/902]S laminate of carbon fiber–epoxy is cured at temperature of 190°C and slowly cooled down
to room temperature, T=-167°C.
• Each layer in the laminate has a thickness h.
• 11=-1.8*10-6 K-1
• 22=27*10-6 K-1 0
90
• Symmetric, Bij=0 90 h
• No curvature, only A is required
90
90
• Thermal forces calculation:
0
 Residual stresses of a symmetric cross-ply
• Which yields

• No external force applied:

• With
• Yields:
 Residual stresses of a symmetric cross-ply
• The free thermal contraction strains, given as:

• And therefore residual strain in each layer:

 Residual stresses of a symmetric cross-ply
• And finally residual stresses:
• MPa